Thinking Russia was considering an alliance with England, Napoleon Bonaparte attempted to invade Russia, but the bitter cold and Russia’s own efforts was more than he could accomplish. “A military campaign, known in Russia as the Patriotic War of 1812 and in France as the Russian Campaign, that began in June 1812 when Napoleon’s Grande Armée crossed the Niemen River to engage and defeat the Russian army. Napoleon hoped to compel Tsar Alexander I of Russia to cease trading with British merchants through proxies in an effort to pressure the United Kingdom to sue for peace. The official political aim of the campaign was to liberate Poland from the threat of Russia.
Napoleon on Board the Bellerophon, exhibited in 1880 by Sir William Quiller Orchardson. Orchardson depicts the morning of 23 July 1815, as Napoleon watches the French shoreline recede. Public Domain
“The invasion of Russia demonstrates the importance of logistics in military planning. Napoleon and the Grande Armée developed a proclivity for living off the land that served them well in the densely populated and agriculturally rich central Europe with its network of roads. Rapid forced marches dazed and confused old order Austrian and Prussian armies and made foraging difficult. In Russia, many of the Grande Armée’s methods of operation did not work and they were handicapped by the lack of winter horse shoes, which made it impossible for the horses to obtain traction on snow and ice. Forced marches often left troops without supplies as the wagons struggled to keep up. Lack of food and water in thinly populated, agriculturally sparse regions led to the death of troops by exposing them to waterborne diseases through drinking from mud puddles and eating rotten food and forage. The front of the army received whatever could be provided while the formations behind starved. In fact, starvation, desertion, typhus, and suicide would cost the French Army more men than all the battles of the Russian invasion combined. Following the campaign, a saying arose that the Generals Janvier and Février (January and February) defeated Napoleon, alluding to the Russian Winter. While the harsh weather was an important factor in the final defeat of the French Army, historians point out that most French losses took place before the winter and the common narrative that identified the extremely cold weather as the main reason behind the French loss is a myth (perpetuated also by Napoleon’s advisers).” [Invasion of Russia]
Much of Europe united against Napoleon, and in 1814, Bonaparte offered to step down and leave his son in his place. The European forced rejected the idea, and he abdicated and was sent to Elba.
Less than a year following his abdication (April 6, 1814) and the Bourbon Restoration, Napoleon left his island exile in the Tyrrhenian Sea and landed at Cannes on March 1, leading 1,500 men, and marched at once upon Paris. Louis XVIII fled to Ghent on March 13, and Napoleon entered Paris one week later. To broaden his support, Napoleon made liberal changes to the Imperial Constitution, which led a number of former opponents, most notably Benjamin Constant, to rally to his cause. On March 25 Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia concluded an alliance against Napoleon and forced a series of military engagements leading up to the fatal Battle of Waterloo (June 18).
Steuben, Carl von, “Napoleon’s Return from Island of Elba, March 7th 1815” (1818). Prints, Drawings and Watercolors from the Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection. Brown Digital Repository. Brown University Library. https://repository.library.brown.edu/studio/item/bdr:245633/
In early March 1815, he easily escaped from Elba and made his way across France to return to Paris, where he regained supporters and reclaimed the title of Napoleon I, Emperor of France. The day he marched into France was 20 March1815. The next Hundred Days would prove his final hurrah.
The Hundred Days is also known as the War of the Seventh Coalition. Napoleon had been on Elba for a mere 11 months before he attempted to take control of France and Europe once more. The War of the Seventh Coalition includes such important battles as the Neapolitan War [also known as the Austro-Neapolitan War, was a conflict between the Napoleonic Kingdom of Naples and the Austrian Empire. It started on 15 March 1815, when King Joachim Murat declared war on Austria, and ended on 20 May 1815, with the signing of the Treaty of Casalanza.], the Battle of Quatre Bras, the Battle of Ligny (both Napoleon victories), and the Battle of Waterloo (where Napoleon was soundly defeated).
Dighton, Denis, “The 7th Queen’s Own Hussars under Sir Edward Kerrison, charging the French at Quatre Bras. 16th June 1815” (1818). Prints, Drawings and Watercolors from the Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection. Brown Digital Repository. Brown University Library. https://repository.library.brown.edu/studio/item/bdr:238479/
The phrase les Cent Jours (the hundred days) was first used by the perfect of Paris, Gaspard, comte de Chabrol, in his speech welcoming King Louis XVIII back to the throne.
Napoleon’s defeat ultimately signaled the end of France’s domination of Europe. He abdicated for a second time and was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena, in the southern Atlantic Ocean, where he lived out the rest of his days. He died at age 52 on May 5, 1821.
Psychology Today tells us, “Human beings are built to size each other up quickly. These first impressions are influenced by a number of factors, such as facial shape, vocal inflection, attractiveness, and general emotional state. People tend to get attached to their initial impressions of others and find it very difficult to change their opinion, even when presented with lots of evidence to the contrary. As a result, it’s important to be aware of how one comes across to others during a first meeting.”
We have all taken a first impression of another individual. You encounter the person at the grocery store, in a public park, in school, etc., and you create (consciously or subconsciously) a mental image of that person. How accuracy that snap judgement is can prove debatable. Such factors as where you encounter them, the person’s looks, demeanor, gender, language (this is a big one for me as a former English teacher), posture, voice, etc. all lend themselves to forming that first impression.
First impressions can be affected by whether we are alone or with others. We found that to be true when Elizabeth Bennet first encounters Mr. Fitzwilliam Darcy at the Meryton Assembly in Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice. The original title of Austen’s most famous tale was “First Impressions.” Let us see what our two main characters thought of each other upon their first encounter.
Mr. Darcy catches everyone’s eye, for he tall and handsome and reportedly has an income of 10,000 per year. Mr. Darcy is the “another young man” of whom they all have heard who will attend the assembly with the Bingley party. Sandsifterfive tells us . . .
That ‘another young man’ is, of course, Mr. Darcy, and his words and actions at Chapter Three’s Assembly Ball will affect every succeeding page of the Novel. His pride gives rise to no small reactions of wounded pride and intense prejudice on the part of Elizabeth, the object of his studied insult.Studied because Austen makes clear that Mr. Darcy is aware that Elizabeth is listening when he tells Bingley that Elizabeth:
‘… is tolerable; but not handsome enough to tempt me; and I am in no humour at present to give consequence to young ladies who are slighted by other men.’
Mr. Darcy: a fine, tall person, handsome features, noble mien … looked at with great admiration for about half the evening, till his manners gave a disgust … for he was discovered to be proud, to be above his company, and above being pleased.
Elizabeth: who
… remained with no very cordial feelings toward him [Mr. Darcy, of course]. She told the story however with great spirit among her friends; for she had a lively, playful disposition, which delighted in any thing ridiculous.
I have previously searched out the words “pride” and “prejudice” to note how often Austen used those words in her beloved novel. Now let us see how she used first “impressions,” the intended title.
From Chapter 35, a part of Mr. Darcy’s letter to Elizabeth: “I must now mention a circumstance which I would wish to forget myself, and which no obligation less than the present should induce me to unfold to any human being. Having said thus much, I feel no doubt of your secrecy. My sister, who is more than ten years my junior, was left to the guardianship of my mother’s nephew, Colonel Fitzwilliam, and myself. About a year ago she was taken from school, and an establishment formed for her in London; and last summer she went with the lady who presided over it to Ramsgate; and thither also went Mr. Wickham, undoubtedly by design; for there proved to have been a prior acquaintance between him and Mrs. Younge, in whose character we were most unhappily deceived; and by her connivance and aid, he so far recommended himself to Georgiana, whose affectionate heart retained a strong impression of his kindness to her as a child, that she was persuaded to believe herself in love, and to consent to an elopement. She was then but fifteen, which must be her excuse; and after stating her imprudence, I am happy to add that I owed the knowledge of it to herself. I joined them unexpectedly a day or two before the intended elopement, and then Georgiana, unable to support the idea of grieving and offending a brother whom she almost looked up to as a father, acknowledged the whole to me. You may imagine what I felt and how I acted. Regard for my sister’s credit and feelings prevented any public exposure; but I wrote to Mr. Wickham, who left the place immediately, and Mrs. Younge was of course removed from her charge. Mr. Wickham’s chief object was unquestionably my sister’s fortune, which is thirty thousand pounds; but I cannot help supposing that the hope of revenging himself on me was a strong inducement. His revenge would have been complete indeed.
From Chapter 36, Elizabeth second guesses her “first impression”: When she came to that part of the letter in which her family were mentioned in terms of such mortifying, yet merited reproach, her sense of shame was severe. The justice of the charge struck her too forcibly for denial, and the circumstances to which he particularly alluded as having passed at the Netherfield ball, and as confirming all his first disapprobation, could not have made a stronger impression on his mind than on hers.
From Chapter 44, we note Elizabeth’s change of heart: As for Elizabeth, her thoughts were at Pemberley this evening more than the last; and the evening, though as it passed it seemed long, was not long enough to determine her feelings towards one in that mansion; and she lay awake two whole hours endeavouring to make them out. She certainly did not hate him. No; hatred had vanished long ago, and she had almost as long been ashamed of ever feeling a dislike against him, that could be so called. The respect created by the conviction of his valuable qualities, though at first unwillingly admitted, had for some time ceased to be repugnant to her feelings; and it was now heightened into somewhat of a friendlier nature by the testimony so highly in his favour, and bringing forward his disposition in so amiable a light, which yesterday had produced. But above all, above respect and esteem, there was a motive within her of goodwill which could not be overlooked. It was gratitude — gratitude, not merely for having once loved her, but for loving her still well enough to forgive all the petulance and acrimony of her manner in rejecting him, and all the unjust accusations accompanying her rejection. He who, she had been persuaded, would avoid her as his greatest enemy, seemed, on this accidental meeting, most eager to preserve the acquaintance, and without any indelicate display of regard, or any peculiarity of manner, where their two selves only were concerned, was soliciting the good opinion of her friends, and bent on making her known to his sister. Such a change in a man of so much pride, excited not only astonishment but gratitude — for to love, ardent love, it must be attributed; and as such, its impression on her was of a sort to be encouraged, as by no means unpleasing, though it could not be exactly defined. She respected, she esteemed, she was grateful to him, she felt a real interest in his welfare; and she only wanted to know how far she wished that welfare to depend upon herself, and how far it would be for the happiness of both that she should employ the power, which her fancy told her she still possessed, of bringing on the renewal of his addresses.
From Chapter 48, Mr. Bennet has returned from his search for Lydia in London. He does not blame Elizabeth for what happened. Instead, he indicates she practiced wisdom, when he did not.
When Mr. Bennet arrived, he had all the appearance of his usual philosophic composure. He said as little as he had ever been in the habit of saying; made no mention of the business that had taken him away, and it was some time before his daughters had courage to speak of it.
It was not till the afternoon, when he joined them at tea, that Elizabeth ventured to introduce the subject; and then, on her briefly expressing her sorrow for what he must have endured, he replied, “Say nothing of that. Who should suffer but myself? It has been my own doing, and I ought to feel it.”
“You must not be too severe upon yourself,” replied Elizabeth.
“You may well warn me against such an evil. Human nature is so prone to fall into it! No, Lizzy, let me once in my life feel how much I have been to blame. I am not afraid of being overpowered by the impression. It will pass away soon enough.”
“Do you suppose them to be in London?”
“Yes; where else can they be so well concealed?’
“And Lydia used to want to go to London,” added Kitty.
“She is happy, then,” said her father drily; “and her residence there will probably be of some duration.”
Then, after a short silence, he continued —
“Lizzy, I bear you no ill-will for being justified in your advice to me last May, which, considering the event, shews some greatness of mind.”
The next reference to “impressions” occurs in Chapter 55. This is when Mrs. Bennet is attempting to remove her other daughters from the room so Mr. Bingley might propose to Jane.
The same anxiety to get them by themselves, was visible again in the evening. After tea Mr. Bennet retired to the library, as was his custom, and Mary went upstairs to her instrument. Two obstacles of the five being thus removed, Mrs. Bennet sat looking and winking at Elizabeth and Catherine for a considerable time, without making any impression on them. Elizabeth would not observe her; and when at last Kitty did, she very innocently said, “What is the matter, mama? What do you keep winking at me for? What am I to do?”
Hoping for a more enjoyable response to his proposal to Elizabeth Bennet, he asks her again in Chapter 58, which is where we find “impression” once more.
“We will not quarrel for the greater share of blame annexed to that evening,” said Elizabeth; “The conduct of neither, if strictly examined, will be irreproachable. But since then we have both, I hope, improved in civility.”
“I cannot be so easily reconciled to myself. The recollection of what I then said — of my conduct, my manners, my expressions during the whole of it — is now, and has been many months, inexpressibly painful to me. Your reproof, so well applied, I shall never forget: ‘Had you behaved in a more gentlemanlike manner.’ Those were your words. You know not, you can scarcely conceive, how they have tortured me; though it was some time, I confess, before I was reasonable enough to allow their justice.”
“I was certainly very far from expecting them to make so strong an impression. I had not the smallest idea of their being ever felt in such a way.”
“I can easily believe it. You thought me then devoid of every proper feeling; I am sure you did. The turn of your countenance I shall never forget, as you said that I could not have addressed you in any possible way that would induce you to accept me.”
The final reference comes from Chapter 59 when Mr. Bennet agrees to Elizabeth marrying Mr. Darcy.
Her father was walking about the room, looking grave and anxious. “Lizzy,” said he, “what are you doing? Are you out of your senses, to be accepting this man? Have not you always hated him?”
How earnestly did she then wish that her former opinions had been more reasonable, her expressions more moderate! It would have spared her from explanations and professions which it was exceedingly awkward to give; but they were now necessary, and she assured him with some confusion, of her attachment to Mr. Darcy.
“Or, in other words, you are determined to have him. He is rich, to be sure, and you may have more fine clothes and fine carriages than Jane. But will they make you happy?”
“Have you any other objections,” said Elizabeth, “than your belief of my indifference?”
“None at all. We all know him to be a proud, unpleasant sort of a man; but this would be nothing if you really liked him.”
“I do, I do like him,” she replied, with tears in her eyes; “I love him. Indeed he has no improper pride. He is perfectly amiable. You do not know what he really is; then pray do not pain me by speaking of him in such terms.”
“Lizzy,” said her father, “I have given him my consent. He is the kind of man, indeed, to whom I should never dare refuse anything which he condescended to ask. I now give it to you, if you are resolved on having him. But let me advise you to think better of it. I know your disposition, Lizzy. I know that you could be neither happy nor respectable unless you truly esteemed your husband — unless you looked up to him as a superior. Your lively talents would place you in the greatest danger in an unequal marriage. You could scarcely escape discredit and misery. My child, let me not have the grief of seeing you unable to respect your partner in life. You know not what you are about.”
Elizabeth, still more affected, was earnest and solemn in her reply; and at length, by repeated assurances that Mr. Darcy was really the object of her choice, by explaining the gradual change which her estimation of him had undergone, relating her absolute certainty that his affection was not the work of a day, but had stood the test of many months suspense, and enumerating with energy all his good qualities, she did conquer her father’s incredulity, and reconcile him to the match.
“Well, my dear,” said he, when she ceased speaking, “I have no more to say. If this be the case, he deserves you. I could not have parted with you, my Lizzy, to any one less worthy.” To complete the favourable impression, she then told him what Mr. Darcy had voluntarily done for Lydia. He heard her with astonishment.
“This is an evening of wonders indeed! And so, Darcy did everything — made up the match, gave the money, paid the fellow’s debts, and got him his commission! So much the better. It will save me a world of trouble and economy. Had it been your uncle’s doing, I must and would have paid him; but these violent young lovers carry everything their own way. I shall offer to pay him to-morrow: he will rant and storm about his love for you, and there will be an end of the matter.” He then recollected her embarrassment a few days before, on his reading Mr. Collins’s letter; and after laughing at her some time, allowed her at last to go, saying, as she quitted the room, “If any young men come for Mary or Kitty, send them in, for I am quite at leisure.”
Elizabeth’s mind was now relieved from a very heavy weight, and, after half an hour’s quiet reflection in her own room, she was able to join the others with tolerable composure. Everything was too recent for gaiety, but the evening passed tranquilly away; there was no longer anything material to be dreaded, and the comfort of ease and familiarity would come in time.
That is it. Only 7 times was “impressions” used in the novel originally entitled First Impressions. Whereas, variations of “pride, proud, and prideful” appear more than 130 times. Enough said.
In the singular form the lexicon of a particular subject is all the terms associated with it. The lexicon of a person or group is all the words they commonly use. As a plural noun, a lexicon is an alphabetical list of the words in a language or the words associated with a particular subject. To distinguish lexicon from a dictionary, it is an alphabetical list of the words in a language or the words associated with a particular subject.
These examples are a mix of what one might hear upon the lips of the aristocracy, as well as examples of Cant used upon London’s streets and those terms used by farmers and like in the country.
doctor – milk and water, with a little rum and nutmeg; also the name of the composition distillers used to make spirits to appear stronger than they were
doctors – loaded dice
Doctors’ Commons – where the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts met; south of St. Paul’s Cathedral; marriage licenses were issued and wills written there
Dog Latin – Barbarous Latin, such as was formerly used by the lawyers in their pleading
doing it much too brown – overdoing it, so that it is no longer credible
Don – head of a college at Oxford or Cambridge; another name for a “tutor”
done up – ruined by gaming and extravagances
dot and go one – to waddle: generally applied to person who have one leg shorter than the other, and who, as the sea phrases are keen to say, go upon an uneven keel; also a jeering appellation for an inferior writing-master or teacher of arithmetic
Double First – the title given to the person who received first prize in both the classics and in mathematics honor exams at Oxford
Dowager – a title given to a widow of rank;
The widow of a peer, eg the Dowager Countess of Somewhere. The term was not added to a woman’s title unless and until the new (male) holder of the title married. For example, if the new Earl of Somewhere, the son of the late earl, is a young man when he inherits the title and has no wife, his mother continues to be styled Countess of Somewhere. When he marries, his wife takes that title and his mother becomes the Dowager Countess. The term is also sometimes used informally, and disparagingly, to refer to an older woman of the upper classes.
dowry – the monetary settlement the woman brings to the marriage
doxies – female beggars, wenches, and whores
drag – a private stagecoach; usually pulled by four horses
2nd Royal North British Dragoons on the Line of March 1743 by Harry Payne
dragoon – cavalrymen who rode into battle on horseback and then dismounted to fight; shot a pistol that send out a “flame” like a dragon
dragooning it – a man who occupies two branches of the same professions, is said to dragoon it, because like the soldier of that denomination, he serves in a double capacity; such as a physician who furnishes the medicines and compounds his own prescriptions
dram – a glass or small measure of any spirituous liquors, which, being originally sol by apothecaries, were estimated by drams, ounces, &c.
draw someone’s cork – punch in the nose and cause to bleed
drawers – long underpants; originally were two separate leggings tied together at the waist; generally knee length
drawing room – room used for after-dinner gatherings; usually large enough for informal dancing, a pianoforte, etc. (see comment below)
dressing for Supper – Supper was a formal meal; ladies and gentlemen don their best clothing for dinner.
drive unicorn – drive a vehicle with 3 horses, one in front of the other two
dropsy – having fluid build up in the joints in such diseases as diabetes or emphysema
drum – A party. Also, follow the drum, meaning to follow the army. For example, a woman who joins her soldier husband wherever he is posted is said to follow the drum.
drummer – a jockey term for a horse that throws about his forelegs in an irregular manner
duck legs – short legs
ducks and drakes – skipping stones across the surface of a river, lake, etc.
dudgeon: a feeling of offense or resentment; anger
duds – clothes
Duke Humphrey – to dine with Duke Humphrey was to fast. In old St. Paul’s Church was an aisle called Duke Humphrey’s walk (from a tomb vulgarly called his, but, in reality, belonging to John of Gaunt) and persons who walked there, while others were at dinner, were said to dine with Duke Humphrey.
dumb-founded – silenced on a subject
dun territory – in debt
(This post went up early, and several of my followers saw it then. One of them was LordBeariOfBow. Brian assures me the correct term is “withdrawing room,” not “drawing room.” I told him in Regency novels, the “withdrawing room” was the room set aside for the ladies to see to a torn hem or their personal needs during a ball. He was kind enough to send me these links to illustrate his point. I bow to his British heritage…
Here’s some interesting links to the ……….room. the last of the 3 is the most interesting to my mind.
William Herschel – Public Domain ~ supposedly by Lemuel Francis Abbott
Frederick William Herschel was a German born astronomer and composer, residing in England during the late 1750s. He was nineteen when he came to live in England. In 1774, Herschel constructed the first of his large telescopes.
On 13 March 1781, while making observations he saw something “unusual” in the constellation of Gemini, Herschel noticed an object appearing as a disk. Initially, he thought it might be a comet or some sort of stellar disc. He reported his find to the Astronomer Royal, one Nevil Maskelyne, while he continued to make additional observations of the object. Afterwards, Anders Lexell, a Russian Academician, computed the orbit and determined it was likely planetary.
Herschel’s find was the planet Uranus. His find was the first planet to be discovered and confirmed by other astronomers since antiquity, meaning the ancient past and before the Middle Ages. Herschel became famous immediately, and King George III appointed him Court Astronomer. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and was presented with funds to construct new and better telescopes.
Initially, Herschel called the planet the “Georgian star,” in honor of King George III, but, needless to say, not all liked the name, especially the French, who called the discovery after Herschel. Eventually, all involved agreed to call the planet “Uranus.”
Herschel received the Copley Medal [The Copley Medal is the most prestigious award of the Royal Society, conferred “for sustained, outstanding achievements in any field of science”. It alternates between the physical sciences or mathematics and the biological sciences and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. ]
In 1782, he was appointed as the “King’s Astronomer,” not to be confused with the “Astronomer Royal.” [Astronomer royal is a senior post in the Royal Households of the United Kingdom. There are two officers, the senior being the astronomer royal dating from 22 June 1675; the junior is the astronomer royal for Scotland dating from 1834.The post was created by King Charles II in 1675, at the same time as he founded the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.]
From 1782 to 1802, and most intensively from 1783 to 1790, Herschel conducted systematic surveys in search of “deep-sky” or non-stellar objects with two 20-foot-focal-length (610 cm), 12-and-18.7-inch-aperture (30 and 47 cm) telescopes (in combination with his favoured 6-inch-aperture instrument). Excluding duplicated and “lost” entries, Herschel ultimately discovered over 2,400 objects defined by him as nebulae. [Barentine, John C. (2015). The Lost Constellations: A History of Obsolete, Extinct, or Forgotten Star Lore. Springer. p. 410.]
We now know that Uranus is one of coldest of the planets. It was named after the Greek God of the Sky. Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun and is considered an ice giant because it is largely made up of water, ammonia, and methane in solid form. Like all the other planets, Uranus was likely formed in a massive, ancient cloud of gas, dust, and ice that collapsed into a spinning disc. The planet is often dubbed an ice giant, since at least 80% of its mass is a fluid mix of water, methane and ammonia ice. Unlike the other planets of the solar system, Uranus is tilted so far that it essentially orbits the sun on its side, with the axis of its spin nearly pointing at the star.
Herschel and his sister Caroline (also a noted astronomer) moved to Datchet, England, to continue his work as an astronomer and telescope maker. His reputation along those lines was well-known and he sold over completed reflector telescopes to British and Continental astronomers.
Herschel’s Grand Forty feet Reflecting Telescopes A hand-coloured illustration of William Herschel’s massive reflecting telescope with a focal length of forty feet, which was erected at his home in Slough. Completed in 1789, the telescope became a local tourist attraction and was even featured on Ordnance Survey maps. By 1840, however, it was no longer used and was dismantled, although part of it is now on display at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. This image of the telescope was engraved for the Encyclopedia Londinensis in 1819 as part of its treatment of optics. Herschel’s Grand Forty feet Reflecting Telescopes ~ Public Domain
Herschel pioneered the use of astronomical spectrophotometry, using prisms and temperature measuring equipment to measure the wavelength distribution of stellar spectra. In the course of these investigations, Herschel discovered infrared radiation. [“Herschel discovers infrared light”. Cool Cosmos.] Other work included an improved determination of the rotation period of Mars, [“Mars in the Classroom”. Copus.] the discovery that the Martian polar caps vary seasonally, the discovery of Titania and Oberon (moons of Uranus) and Enceladus and Mimas (moons of Saturn). Herschel was made a Knight of the Royal Guelphic Order in 1816. He was the first President of the Royal Astronomical Society when it was founded in 1820. He died in August 1822, and his work was continued by his only son, John Herschel.
In addition to his scientific studies, Herschel was a well-known musician, playing both oboe and violin and following in the footsteps of his father. He was amazingly talented.
Herschel’s complete musical works were as follows:
18 symphonies for small orchestra (1760–1762)
6 symphonies for large orchestra (1762–1764)
12 concertos for oboe, violin and viola (1759–1764)
2 concertos for organ
6 sonatas for violin, cello and harpsichord (published 1769)
12 solos for violin and basso continuo (1763)
24 capriccios and 1 sonata for solo violin
1 andante for two basset horns, two oboes, two horns and two bassoons.
Various vocal works including a “Te Deum”, psalms, motets and sacred chants along with some catches.
Is it not odd that Austen chose originally to name her novel First Impressions, when it is not “first impressions,” which bring Elizabeth Bennet “enlightenment”?
Initially, Elizabeth finds everyone, but Mr. Darcy, as “amiable.” To prove my point about the slow process that brings about Elizabeth’s change of heart, mayhap we should think about how often the word “amiable” is used in Pride and Prejudice and by whom. For example, Mr. Collins throws the word about as the ultimate superlative (as in describing Miss De Bourgh as “perfectly amiable”), and we all likely possess the same opinion of Mr. Collins’ sensibility. I would venture the majority of us think of the word “amiable” in regards to displaying a friendly manner. If so, how is Anne De Bourgh “perfectly amiable”?
Mr. Collins refers to Elizabeth as “amiable” in his proposal, but later transfers the word to refer to Charlotte Lucas. Elizabeth says Charlotte is “very amiable” in accepting Mr. Collins’ plight. Elizabeth also speaks of Wickham as “amiable.” Do you notice a pattern that those who act insensibly are the ones named as “amiable”? Mayhap, then: If Mr. Darcy is not “amiable,” he is the most sensible of Elizabeth’s acquaintances.
Elizabeth calls Mr. Bingley “truly amiable,” but that is long before she comes to the realization that his weak character has permitted him to be swayed by his sisters and Mr. Darcy to leave Netherfield and Jane Bennet behind. Is amiability then a weakness?
Dictionary.comdefines the adjective as… 1. having or showing pleasant, good-natured personal qualities; affable: an amiable disposition. 2. friendly; sociable: an amiable greeting; an amiable gathering. 3. agreeable; willing to accept the wishes, decisions, or suggestions of another or others. 4. Obsolete. lovable or lovely.
Let us take a look at the word “amiable” as it is used in Pride and Prejudice.
Chapter 3: Such amiable qualities must speak for themselves. What a contrast between him and his friend! Mr. Darcy danced only once with Mrs. Hurst and once with Mrs. Hurst and conch with Miss Bingley, declined being introduced to any other lady, and spent the rest of the evening walking about the room, speaking occasionally to one of his own part. His character was decided. He was the proudest, most disagreeable man in the world, and everyone hoped that he would never come there again! Needless to say, the reader is well aware that Elizabeth’s first impression of Mr. Darcy is marked by the opinion of others, as well as her encounter with the gentleman when he terms her merely “tolerable.”
Chapter 13:I cannot be otherwise than concerned at being the means of injuring your amiable daughters, and beg leave to apologise for it, as well as to assure you of my readiness to make them every possible amends, but of this hereafter. Mr. Collins terms Mr. Bennet’s daughters as “amiable,” although he has never met them. Is “amiable” a word to toss about in any Regency conversation?
Chapter 14:She is unfortunately of a sickly constitution, which has prevented her making that profess in many accomplishments which she could not otherwise have failed of, as I am informed by the lady who superintended her education, and who still resides with them. But she is perfectly amiable, and often condescends to drive by my humble abode in her little phaeton and ponies. Would any of us who know the story of Anne De Bourgh term the woman “amiable.” The woman barely utters a word through the story and then only to her companion Mrs. Jenkinson.
Chapter 15: Having now a good house and a very sufficient income, he intended to marry; and in seeking a reconciliation with the Longbourn family he had a wife in view, as he meant to choose one of the daughters, if found them as handsome and amiable as they were represented by common report. This was his plan of amends — of atonement — for inheriting their father’s estate; and he thought it an excellent one… Mr. Collins means to marry one of the Bennet daughters for he believes as the heir presumptive of Longbourn that any of the Bennets would be happy to save their family home. He is looking for a “sure deal.” He knows nothing of the girls accept common rumors of their being pleasant.
Chapter 16:She could have added, “A young man too, like you, whose very countenance may vouch for your being amiable.” But she contented herself with, “And one, too, who had probably been his own companion from childhood, connected together, as I think you said, in the closest manner.” Elizabeth judges the reliability of Mr. Wickham’s allegations against Mr. Darcy on his pleasant countenance and her embarrassment of being only “tolerable” in the Darcy’s opinions. She is saying “because you are very handsome, I will believe every lie you utter.”
Chapter 17:Elizabeth related to Jane, the next day, what had passed between Mr. Wickham and herself. Jane listened with astonishment and concern; she knew not how to believe that Mr. Darcy could be so unworthy of Mr. Bingley’s regard, and yet it was not in her nature to question the veracity of a young man of such amiable appearance as Wickham. The possibility of his having really endured such unkindness, was enough to interest all her tender feelings, and nothing, therefore, remained to be done but to think well of them both, to defend the conduct of each, and throw into the account of accident or mistake whatever could not be otherwise explained. Jane cannot believe that Mr. Darcy could act without benevolence for she believes Mr. Bingley could not admire Darcy if the man were so vile. Again, Wickham’s handsome countenance blinds the women to his true nature.
Chapter 19:You would have been less amiable in my eyes had there not been this little unwillingness; but allow me to assure you, that I have your respected mother’s permission for this address. Mr. Collins does not view Elizabeth’s refusal as a deficit, rather as if he expects ALL women to use their wiles to illicit confessions of “love” from their gentlemen callers.
“Were it certain that Lady Catherine would think so,” said Mr. Collins, very gravely, “but I cannot imagine that her ladyship would at all disapprove of you. And you may be certain when I have the honor of seeing her again I shall speak in the highest terms of your modesty, economy, and other amiable qualifications.” Although has presented Mr. Collins several refusals, the man still speaks of her “amiability.” In this scene, Elizabeth is everything but amiable.
… in spite of your manifold attractions, it is by no means certain that another offer of marriage may ever be made you. Your portion is unhappily so small that it will, in all likelihood, undo the effects of your loveliness and amiable qualifications. As I must, therefore, conclude that you are not serious in your rejection of me, I shall choose to attribute it to your wish of increasing my love by suspense, according to the usual practice of elegant females. Mr. Collins bases his opinion of “elegant” females on what Lady Catherine dictates. Elizabeth does not wish to be viewed as “amiable” in her interactions with Mr. Collins.
Chapter 20:My conduct may, I fear, be objectionable in having accepted my dismiss ion from your daughter’s lips instead of your own; but we are all liable to error. I have certainly meant well through the whole affair. My object has been to secure an amiable companion for myself, with due consideration for the advantage of all your family, and if my manner has been at all reprehensible, I here beg leave to apologize. Mr. Collins’ pride requires him to accept Elizabeth’s refusal. He has determined earlier that if Elizabeth is “a very headstrong and foolish,” she would not make him a desirable wife. Elizabeth would not suit for him, nor would she receive Lady Catherine’s approval.
Chapter 25:After a week spent in professions of love and schemes of felicity, Mr. Collins was called from his amiable Charlotte by the arrival of Saturday. The pain of of separation, however, might be alleviated on his side by preparations fro the reception of his bride, as he reason to hope that shortly after his return into Hertfordshire the day would be fixed that would make him the happiest of men. Personally, I do not believe that Charlotte was acting from amiability by accepting Mr. Collins, but rather through practical reality. Marriage was a woman’s only choice during the Regency.
Chapter 35: If it be so, if I have been misled by such error to inflict pain on her, your resentment has not been unreasonable. But I shall not scruple to assert that the serenity of your sister’s countenance and air was such as might have given the most acute observer a conviction that, however amiable her temper, her heart was not likely to be easily touched. That I was desirous of believing her indifferent is certain; but I will venture to says that my investigations and decisions are not usually influenced by my hopes or fears. If Jane Bennet used the cloak of amiability to hide her feelings for Mr. Bingley, is amiability something to covet?
Chapter 36:… that as proud and repulsive as were his manners; she and never, in the whole course of their acquaintance – an acquaintance which had latterly brought them much together, and given her a sort of intimacy with his way – seen anything that betrayed him to be unprincipled or unjust – anything that spoke him of irreligious or immoral habits; that among his own connections he was esteemed and valued; that even Wickham had allowed him merit as a brother and that she had often heard him speak so affectionately of his sister as to prove him capable of some amiable feeling; that had his actions been what Wickham represented them, so gross a violation of everything right could hardly have been concealed from the world; and that friendship between a person capable of it and such an amiable man as Mr. Bingley was incomprehensible. From the letter Elizabeth begins to measure the true exemplary qualities of Mr. Darcy and how Wickham’s “amiable” tales could not be reality.
Chapter 40:The general prejudice against Mr. Darcy is so violent, that it would be the death of half the good people in Meryton to attempt to place him in an amiable light. I am not equal to it. Wickham will soon be gone; and, therefore, it will not signify to anyone here what he really is. Some time hence it will be all found out, and then we may laugh at their stupidity in not knowing it before. At present I will say nothing about it. Despite Elizabeth’s recognizing the injustices she placed on Mr. Darcy’s shoulders, she does nothing to correct the perceptions of the man or of Mr. Wickham. She cannot admit that Mr. Wickham’s easy manner persuaded her and the others to see only what they wished to see.
Chapter 43:“In what an amiable light does this place him!” thought Elizabeth. “This fine account of him,” whispered her aunt as they walked, “is not quite consistent with his behavior to our poor friend.” Elizabeth acknowledged to Jane that she misjudged Mr. Darcy, but she has not done so with others until this moment. Moreover, what she suspects is the real nature of the man is flushed out by the reports from Mrs. Reynolds of Darcy’s benevolence (“He is the best landlord and the best master”) and of Mr. Wickham (“but I am afraid he turned out very wild”). “This was praise of all others, most extraordinary, most opposite to her ideas. That he was not a good-tempted man had been her firmest opinion. Her keenest attention was awakened; she longed to hear more, and was grateful…”
Chapter 44: She certainly did not hate him. No; hatred had vanished long ago, and she had almost as long been ashamed of ever feeling a dislike against him that could so be called. The respect created by the conviction of his valuable qualities, though at first unwillingly admitted, had for some time ceased to be repugnant to her feelings, and it was not heightened into somewhat of a friendlier nature by the testimony so highly in his favor, and bringing forward his disposition in so amiable a light, which yesterday had produced. But above all, above respect and esteem, there was a motive within her of good-will which could not be overlooked. Elizabeth’s opinion of Darcy has changed dramatically with her appearance at Pemberley. It is not him that she calls “amiable,” but the manner of her transformation. Her first impressions have proved faulty, and only her careful examination of a variety of facts brings her to this “amiable light.”
Chapter 47:He must know that she was as amiable and unpretending as we have found her.” “But does Lydia know nothing of this? Can she be ignorant of what you and Jane seem so well to understand?” Like others in the story, Lydia is termed as “amiable,” but she does not show good judgement with Mr. Wickaham.
Chapter 54:“He could be still amiable, still pleasing to my uncle and aunt, when he was in town; and why not to me? If he fears me, why come hither? If he no longer cares for me, why silent? Teasing, teasing man! I will think no more about him.” Elizabeth knows something of Darcy’s pleasing personality and is jealous of his ignoring her when Darcy and Bingley call upon the Longbourn household. The last lines of the chapter speak to the idea of amiability and “first impressions”: “That is a question which I hardly know how to answer. We all love to instruct, though we can teach only what is not worth knowing.”
Chapter 58: I was spoilt by my parents, who, though good themselves (my father particularly , all that was benevolent and amiable), allowed, encouraged, almost taught me to be selfish and overbearing; to care for none beyond my own family circle; to think meanly of all the rest of the world; to wish, at least to think, meanly of their sense and worth compared with my own. Mr. Darcy has yet to acknowledge that “amiability” is not a sign of good breeding. How could a father who was “benevolent” and “amiable” teach his child such prideful lessons? Perhaps the answer lies in the fact that amiability is not a sign of strength.
Chapter 61: I wish I could say for the sake of her family, that the accomplishment of her earnest desire in the establishment of so many of her children produced so happy an effect as to make her a sensible, amiable, well-informed woman for the rest of her life; though, perhaps, it was lucky for her husband, who might not have relished domestic felicity in so unusual a form, that she still was occasionally nervous and invariably silly. In this case, Mr. Bennet prefers his wife’s silliness rather than her sensibility, but even if Mrs. Bennet knew “amiability,” the reader would not see her in a positive light. The words before this quote tells us of her going about the neighborhood and bragging on the advantageous marriages of her two eldest daughters.
Darcy and Elizabeth achieve their “HEA” because they each go through a change. When Elizabeth first refused Mr. Darcy, he permitted no one to know his more “perfectly amiable” qualities. He must overcome his “improper pride.” Meanwhile, Elizabeth slowly learns what it means to “marry for love.” Starting with the receipt of Mr. Darcy’s letter, Elizabeth does a great deal of soul searching. She acknowledges the flaws which led her to accept Mr. Wickham’s shallowness over Mr. Darcy’s sense of responsibility. Because Darcy and Elizabeth grow together, they achieve a Happily Ever After.
She grew absolutely ashamed of herself. Of neither Darcy nor Wickham could she think without feeling she had been blind, partial, prejudiced, absurd.
“How despicably I have acted!” she cried; “I, who have prided myself on my discernment! I, who have valued myself on my abilities! who have often disdained the generous candour of my sister, and gratified my vanity in useless or blameable mistrust! How humiliating is this discovery! Yet, how just a humiliation! Had I been in love, I could not have been more wretchedly blind! But vanity, not love, has been my folly. Pleased with the preference of one, and offended by the neglect of the other, on the very beginning of our acquaintance, I have courted prepossession and ignorance, and driven reason away, where either were concerned. Till this moment I never knew myself.” (36.18-19)
In the singular form the lexicon of a particular subject is all the terms associated with it. The lexicon of a person or group is all the words they commonly use. As a plural noun, a lexicon is an alphabetical list of the words in a language or the words associated with a particular subject. To distinguish lexicon from a dictionary, it is an alphabetical list of the words in a language or the words associated with a particular subject.
These examples are a mix of what one might hear upon the lips of the aristocracy, as well as examples of Cant used upon London’s streets and those terms used by farmers and like in the country.
dace – Cant. for two pence
being at daggers – slang for ready to fight
daft – stupid
The Daily Courant – England’s first daily newspaper; founded in 1702
dam – a small Indian coin, mentioned in the Gentoo code of laws: hence etymologists may have derived the expression, “I do not give a dam” to mean “I do not care half a farthing for it.”
damask – a fancy silk or linen fabric used for table linen; usually had a flower design raised
damned hum – a falsehood or lie
damper – a luncheon or sack before dinner; so called because it dampened the appetite
dance upon nothing – to be hanged
dandy – the term came into use in 1813; It indicated a man of fashion, charm and wit. The preferred subdued, carefully curated looks that reflected a “studied masculinity” with dark colors, no perfume, and artful accessories.
dangling after – hanging about; pursuing someone, especially man interested in a female
dapper – sharply dressed
dark cully – a married man who keeps a mistress; he visits her only after dark for fear of discovery
“Dark Lady” – sometimes used to refer to the character of Marianne Dashwoood in “Sense and Sensibility”; it is a term Leslie Fiedler uses in “Love and Death in the American Novel”; a woman of deep feelings and sensibilities
to cut a dash – to be well dressed; cut a figure
David Jones – the devil; the spirit of the sea; called “Necken” in the north countries, such as Norway, Denmark, and Sweden; sleeping in “David Jones’s locker,” would be having drowned in the sea
dead horse – to work for the dead horse was to work for wages already paid
Debrett’s – an guide to the peerage; published annually
debt of honor – a gambling debt; not enforceable by law
Decree Nisi – a provisional divorce decree; the couple had to wait 6 months to see if the circumstances changed, only then was the decree final
deep one – a thorough-paced rogue; a sly, designing fellow
degen, or dagen – a sword; nim the degen; steal the sword; “dagen” is Dutch for sword
demesne – land upon which the manor house is built (as opposed to tenants’ cottages)
demi-monde – the phrase means “half world” when translated; class on the fringes of respectable Society. Often used in reference to courtesans, prostitutes, etc, though this is not strictly correct.
Derby – the greatest of the horse racing venues; pronounced “Darby”; held at Epsom Downs, which is some 15 miles outside of London
devil – the gizzard of a turkey or fowl, scored, peppered, salted, and broiled; it derives its appellation from being hot in the mouth
devil’s guts – a surveyor’s chain, so called by farmers who did not their landlords to measure their land
dicked in the nob – being silly; crazed
dicky – a woman’s under petticoat
dickey – a seat for servants to sit behind a carriage when their master drives
dimwitted – torn to pieces by a mob, as was the great Dutch statesman John de Wit (Johan de Witt) in Holland in 1672
We have all received those letters and emails requesting money or asking someone to invest in a scheme. Here is one of the recent ones I received, which is addressed to “Dear Sir.” OOPS!!! Obviously, my gmail account sent the request to the spam folder.
Dear sir,i m so sorry please dont mind that i trouble you but its my real problem
My name is Mrs Rehana Kishwar Naaz, I am a Pakistani and live in district of Sialkot. Sir I am very poor. There is no source of income to fulfil the demand of my family. We are eight members of family. My husband is mad. He is absent of mind he cannot do any work as a normal person. I am very worried about my children.
My children want to get EDUCATION but I cannot afford the expenditure of education. Dear sir you know well that education is the key of success and it is very important for the success of a nation. I wish my children gets education and become a gentle man.
I live in rent house and I am a home maid. I cannot explain how I am tense and worried about my family. I send this request to many institute of Pakistan but they cannot help me because I am a Christen.
Sir you are my last option. I hope you never feel me alone. Sir please give me response as soon as possible .it is the matter of my children education.
I am very thankful to you because you give me your precious time to read my request. I always remember you in my prayers.
dear sir its my request that please help me personally thank you
But what of “begging letters” in history? Before the time of the internet?
Alan Taylor at the British History Georgian Lives Facebook group recently posted, “Begging letters were often written in the 18th and 19th Century. Sometimes the author was trying his luck with the vulnerable – as some charities today badger the elderly with requests for donations. Other letters were written by the ‘down and out’ to relations, authorities or creditors begging for help. I have a letter of the latter type written by Elizabeth Perry in 1757 from Hanslope in Buckinghamshire to a Francis Walker to whom she owed money. She could not pay the debt and ‘must rely upon your goodness as an excuse’. The tragic tale enfolds ‘my husband has been these two years past…miserably afflicted with the dropsy (a heart condition)’ and so apparently was unable to work. According to records he was a malster (making malt from grain in the brewing industry) but there was also another misfortune for the family as Elizabeth states ‘if it had not been for the loss of our cattle we would not be the humble supplicants now’. This was a double whammy as many artisans of the period would have kept a few animals to supplement their income in hard times. There seemed no way Elizabeth could pay the debt as she had even tried ‘selling all our goods’ but ‘will not near raise the money’ – she was even willing to sell their furniture and other household goods leaving them with nothing, but realised this would not be enough. The only possible end to this was what she dreaded most ‘we must fling ourselves entirely on the parish & become a burden to that place in which we have formerly lived so well’. This outcome was not only a future life of poverty but also a great blow to the pride and reputation of the family!
“I do not know if Mr Walker was sympathetic to their situation, but online research revealed that Mr Perry died the next year, and in his will, there was a section leaving ‘goods, chattels and furniture’ to Elizabeth after the payment of a Bill of Sale..to the Reverend Moses Agar and John Downing’. My interpretation of this statement is that these two Samaritans had bought the furniture, etc., in order for Elizabeth to pay off at least some of her debts but allowed her temporarily to keep it. Further the Northampton Mercury for June 1758 states; ‘to be sold – A malting and orchard..in Hanslope..late belonging to John Perry’. It seems probable that once this was sold, Elizabeth would have been able to pay off the rest of her debts, but I am not sure what happened afterwards although there is a record of the burial of an Elizabeth Perry (pauper) in Hanslope for Dec 1759. The photo shows the church of St James the Great whose vicar, Moses Agar, helped Elizabeth in her distress and possibly buried her as a pauper!”
The State Library of New South Wales has a collection of Begging Letters Received by Banks from Various Persons 1786 – 1808. Purchased in 1884 from Lord Brabourne by Sir Saul Samuel, the Agent-General for New South Wales, the letters were later transferred to the Mitchell Library in 1910 as part of the Brabourne Collection. Sir Joseph Banks was the recipient of many letters requesting financial support, or his support in obtaining a position or promotion. [You can view the series at this Link: https://transcripts.sl.nsw.gov.au/section/series-76-begging-letters-received-banks-various-persons-1786-1808-1884-undated ]
The Jot101 blog shares a begging letter from a debtor in prison. The blog piece goes on to say: “This particular letter is from someone who signs himself M. Eurius Beaubrier, and is addressed to a Henry Clarke. Although preliminary research has revealed nothing of the writer, who may have been French, the handwriting is that of an educated man and the tone is rather pathetic. The letter suggests that both he and Clarke, who is also hard to identify, had dealings before.
“The plea for help comes from the King’s Bench prison in Southwark and is dated 20th July 1827. The tone is pretty desperate:
“‘More than three months have elapsed since first I entered these walls–& God knows what have been my sufferings during that time. I have settled two of the actions against me & I can obtain my discharge on the last for about five pounds. I shall trespass on your friendship once more & for the last time & shall beg of you to lend me the amount which I shall faithfully repay with what you had the kindness to advance me already. I shall be indebted to you for my liberty, which I have learned to appreciate after so long a confinement. I hope that the country air has been beneficial to you and that you are recovered from your late illness. Mrs Beaubrier writes to say that they have received letters from Sir William Congreve & that he finds himself much better. I remain, dear Sir, your ever grateful, M. Eurius Beaubrier'”
The May 1850 edition of Household Words contained an article entitled The Begging-Letter Writer written by Charles Dickens. Household Words was an English weekly magazine edited by Dickens in the 1850s. It took its name from the line in Shakespeare’s Henry V: “Familiar in his mouth as household words.” In the article Dickens describes examples of the many begging letters he had received over the years, and the ruses employed by their writers to gain funds from the recipients.
Periodically in a story set in the Regency era, the occasion arises where a curse word would be appropriate for a character. However, how to use that word and who might utter it remains a decision most authors of the period take seriously. I customarily choose either “bloody” or “demme.”
“Bloody” is a commonly used expletive attributive (intensifier) in British English. It was used as an intensive since at least the 1670s. Considered “respectable” until about 1750, it was heavily tabooed during c. 1750–1920 (which includes the Regency Era of 1811 to 1820), considered equivalent to heavily obscene or profane speech. Public use continued to be seen as controversial until the 1960s, but since the later 20th century, the word has become a comparatively mild expletive or intensifier. (Bloody)
Unfortunately, “demme” is more difficult to pin down for usage. According to Merriam-Webster, “damme” is a mild imprecation, an alteration of “damn me.” Most writers of the Regency claim that Georgette Heyer used the spelling “demme,” although I admit not being a Heyer expert and cannot quote you a passage when it was used. Complicating a search of “demme” is the fact that Google wishes to direct me to Jonathan Demme, the director of the film “Silence of the Lambs.”
The Oxford English Dictionary mentions “demme” being used in 1801 in place of “damn me,” much as the Merriam-Webster reference I mentioned above. This reference in OED refers to Demmy being used for damn me! or dem for damn. In C. S. Lewis’s “The Magician’s Nephew,” (1955) the sixth book of the seven in The Chronicles of Naria, Jadis is clearly a majestic and impressive creature, a “dem fine woman,” (186) as Uncle Andrew calls her.
Arnold Bennett’s “Aunt Clara” was part of the The Clayhanger Family Saga, published between 1910 and 1955. In it, he writes, “Aunt Clara was a handsome woman. She had been called — but not by men who code she would have approved — ‘a damn fine woman.'”
Meanwhile, in 1838, Charles Dickens writes in Nicholas Nickleby (Chapter 17), “She will not take poison and have horrid pains, will she?’ said Mantalini; who, by the altered sound of his voice, seemed to have moved his chair, and taken up his position nearer to his wife. ‘She will not take poison, because she had a demd fine husband who might have married two countesses and a dowager — ‘ ‘Two countesses,’ interposed Madame. ‘You told me one before!’ ‘Two!’ cried Mantalini. ‘Two demd fine women, real countesses and splendid fortunes, demmit.’ ‘And why didn’t you?’ asked Madame, playfully. ‘Why didn’t I!’ replied her husband. ‘Had I not seen, at a morning concert, the demdest little fascinator in all the world, and while that little fascinator is my wife, may not all the countesses and dowagers in England be — ‘ Mr Mantalini did not finish the sentence, but he gave Madame Mantalini a very loud kiss, which Madame Mantalini returned; after which, there seemed to be some more kissing mixed up with the progress of the breakfast. ‘And what about the cash, my existence’s jewel?’ said Mantalini, when these endearments ceased. ‘How much have we in hand?’ ‘Very little indeed,’ replied Madame. ‘We must have some more,’ said Mantalini; ‘we must have some discount out of old Nickleby to carry on the war with, demmit.‘”
The Scarlet Pimpernel is the first novel in a series of historical fiction by Baroness Orczy, published in 1905. In Chapter 4, we find:
We seek him here, we seek him there, Those Frenchies seek him everywhere. Is he in heaven? — Is he in hell? That damned, elusive Pimpernel
Damned and damnation has been around since the sins of Hell were mentioned in a Biblical sense.
Middle English: from Old French dam(p)ner, from Latin dam(p)nare ‘inflict loss on,’ from damnum ‘loss, damage.’ The question is when it became more common as a casual statement without reference to a belief in Hell.
Usages of swearing are like casual slang hard to pinpoint before the days of instant communications. We do not have transcripts of actual people in casual conversation.
damfool; occ., joc., damphoole or -phule. A damned fool. colloquial. noun. and adjective; from resp., ca. 1880 and ca. 1895da
damme (or) dammy. A profane swearer (generally the single word). coll.; ca. 1610-1820; from mid 17th C to 18th C early; “a roaring mad blustering fellow”
damme, I’m off. of late 18th C and early 19th C, satiric of initials on cards of invitation, etc. Grose, 3rd edition
“Damned was coll. late 18C to 20c. dammed was used often instead of “bloody.”
You might find Vic Gatrell’s City of Laughter: Sex and Satire in Eighteen Century London of interest. The book blurb tells us, “City of Laughter chronicles the rise and fall of a great tradition of ridicule and of the satirical, humorous, and widely circulated prints that sustained it. Focusing not on the polished wit upon which polite society prided itself, but rather on malicious, sardonic and satirical humor―humor that was bawdy, knowing and ironic―Vic Gatrell explores what this tradition says about Georgian views of the world and about their own pretensions. Taking the reader into the clubs and taverns where laughter flowed most freely, Gatrell examines how Londoners laughed about sex, scandal, fashion, drink and similar pleasures of life.
“Combining words and images–including more than 300 original drawings by Cruikshank, Gillray, Rowlandson, and others―City of Laughter offers a brilliantly original panorama of the era, providing a ground-breaking reappraisal of a period of change and a unique account of the origins of our attitudes toward sex, celebrity and satire today.”
This book includes language used by famous men in correspondence of the time. One thing we should note is that the word “Christ” is NOT used. So phrases such as “Jesus Christ” as an exclamation should be avoided. Some words that could be used, however are bollocks, by Jove, bloody hell, confound it, balderdash, deuce take it, Egad, gamman, Hell and the Devil, hound’s teeth, etc.
From a member of the Beau Monde chapter of the Romance Writers of America, I “borrowed” a list of words most likely used by women of the period. Unfortunately, I cannot remember who that was and cannot provide them credit at this time. Try these: Baggage (referring to a female), Dratted (man, boy, etc.), Fustian, Heaven forbid, Heaven forfend, Horsefeathers, Humdudgeon, Imp of Satan, Merciful Heavens, Odious (man, creature, etc.), Piffle, Pooh, Ramshackle
In the singular form the lexicon of a particular subject is all the terms associated with it. The lexicon of a person or group is all the words they commonly use. As a plural noun, a lexicon is an alphabetical list of the words in a language or the words associated with a particular subject. To distinguish lexicon from a dictionary, it is an alphabetical list of the words in a language or the words associated with a particular subject.
These examples are a mix of what one might hear upon the lips of the aristocracy, as well as examples of Cant used upon London’s streets and those terms used by farmers and like in the country.
crabbed – ill-tempered; difficult
cradles – Cradles have been around for centuries. The ancient Britons wove cradles in the tree-tops for both children and old men (do we all now Hush-a-bye baby, on the three top; when the wind blows, the cradle will rock…?) It was the custom of weaving an infant’s cradle in the branches of a tree, out of harm’s way, to be rocked by wind power, that spawned the lullaby. The traditional wood for a cradle is birch the tree of inception, which the ancients believed drove away evil spirits.
The first time the future George IV received company, he was twelve days old and securely ensconced in a gold cradle surmounted with a gold coronet. He lay under a canopy of state, enveloped in crimson velvet and gold lace, in a nest of white satin. On either side stood ‘a fair mute, employed as occasion required, to rock the infant to sleep.’ The public were admitted in batches of forty. The daily bill for cake was 40 pound sterling, and for wine, ‘more than could have been conceived’.
crape – a black silk used for mourning clothes
cravat – a long fine cloth tied about a gentleman’s neck in a variety of “bows”
cribbage – Cribbage, or crib, is a card game, traditionally for two players, that involves playing and grouping cards in combinations which gain points. Cribbage has several distinctive features: the cribbage board used for score-keeping; the crib, box, or kitty (in parts of Canada and New England); two distinct scoring stages; and a unique scoring system, including points for groups of cards that total 15. It has been characterized as “Britain’s national card game.”
Both cribbage and its close relative costly colours are descended from the old English card game of noddy. Cribbage added the distinctive feature of a crib and changed the scoring system for points, whereas costly colours added more combinations but retained the original noddy scoring scheme.
cribbage-faced – marked with small pox, the pits bearing a resemblance to the holes in a cribbage board
cribbey or cribbey islands – blind alleys, courts, or bye-ways; perhaps from the houses built there being “cribbed” out of the common way or passage
criminal conversation – adultery, especially as formerly constituting grounds for the recovery of legal damages by a husband from his adulterous wife’s partner.
crim con money – damages directed by a jury to be paid to the convicted adulterer to the injured husband, for the criminal conversation with his wife
cripple – sixpence, that piece being commonly much bent and distorted
crony – an intimate companion or comrade
crop – a nickname for a Presbyterian, for they cropped their hair, trimmed close to a bowl dish placed on the head; latter they were called “roundheads” [The name “roundheads” was originally given to the supporters of the Parliament of England during the English Civil War. Also known as Parliamentarians, they fought against Charles I of England and his supporters, the Cavaliers or Royalists, who claimed rule by absolute monarchy and the divine right of kings. England’s many Puritans and Presbyterians were almost invariably Roundhead supporters, as were many smaller religious groups such as the Independents.]
crops and animals – (I am basically using Yorkshire for my example, but it would apply to most shires with the exception of cold versus warmer climates) In the 1800s, Yorkshire produced corn, cattle, deer, sheep, goats, very fine horses, river and sea fish, game, fowls, copper, brass, lead, iron, coal, wood, liquorice, rape-seed, freestone, limestone, jet, alum, black amber, marble, coppers and kelp, with the “manufactur of woollen”, alum, coppers, malt, fine ale, pins, bone lace, stockings, cutlery wares and iron work which employed at least 40,000 people (the manufacturing).
For wheat, East Riding. Within this area – and in particular the area south of the Derwent river, East Riding produced far more grain products (including wheat) than could be consumed so it was a primary exporter of grains to London.
For Cattle – in addition to East Riding, North Riding where lean cattle were raised in the worst parts, but on the sides of the hills and in the valleys and plains it has rich pastures where large cattle were raised. Also the valleys in West Riding which was famous for its fine horses, where excellent cattle were also raised.
So for those who did not comprehend the reference correctly, the use of the word ‘corn’ in the opening paragraph was my way of describing generally the grains produced within the entire region known as Yorkshire. Please remember, in North America and Australia corn is often used for maize, but in England and Wales it can refer to wheat or barley, and in Scotland and Ireland to oats.
Dairy cows from the midlands (Staffordshire, Cheshire, Wiltshire, etc) through Buckinhamshire, Bedforshire, Berkshirem Middlesex and down to the southern counties – Somerset, Devonshire, Kent, Dorset). Also Suffolk, Sussex, Norfolk etc.
cross writing – fill a page of writing normally and then turn it at a 90 degree angle and write between the open spaces; postage was very expensive
crowdy – oatmeal and walk or milk; much eaten in the north
crump – one who helps solicitors to affidavit men or false witnesses
crusty fellow – someone who is surly
cuckolding – perhaps the best known of these words, and it has many synonyms, including (but by no means restricted to) cornute, cornuto, hoddy-doddy, hoddypoll, horn, ram, and wittol (a man who is aware of his wife’s infidelity and acquiesces to it). What of a woman whose husband is unfaithful? For that our language appears to have but a single word, and an obscure one at that: cuckquean. Lady Caroline Lamb was married to William Lamb but carried on a very public affair with Lord Byron.
cull – an honest man; a “bob cull” is a good-natured fellow (Cant)
cur – a cur or curtailed dog; According to the forest laws, a man who had no right to the privilege of the chase was obliged to cut or law his dog. Among othere modes of disabling him from disturbing the game, one was by depriving him of his tail: a dog so cut was called a “cut” or “curtailed dog,” and by contraction a “cur.” Used figuratively, it meant a surly fellow.
curmudgeon – a covetous old fellow, supposedly derived from the French term cæur mechant
curry – to curry favor; to obtain the favour of a person by coaxing or servility
Curse of Scotland – the nine of diamonds; diamonds, it is said, imply royalty, being ornaments of the imperial crown, and every 9th king of Scotland was considered for many ages to be a tyrant and the “curse of Scotland.”
Others say the phrase is from it similarity to the arms of Argyle. The Duke of Argyle was considered very instrumental in bringing about the union of England and Scotland, which, by some Scottish patriots’ estimation is detrimental to their country.
To cut – to renounce acquaintance with any one is to “cut him.” There are several species of the cut: the direct cut, the cut indirect, the cut sublime, the cut infernal, etc. To cut direct is to make a public display of avoiding someone, as in going a different direct when you see their approach or purposely turning one’s back on the person. The cut indirect is to look another way and pass him without observing him. The cut sublime is to admire the top of King’s College Chapel or the beauty of the passing clouds, etc., until the person is out of sight. The cut infernal is to analyze the arrangement of one’s shoe strings or boot polish for the same purpose.
Curricle – a two-wheeled carriage; pulled y two horses; could seat two people, who of
When I was a teen girl, I enjoyed the school-sponsored Sadie Hawkins’ dances. We didn’t exactly go for the girl asking the boy to the dance (like a date). But we did follow some of the tradition. It was my chance to claim a dance with whichever boy was my fancy at the time. But from where does the tradition come? First, let me say there’s a misconception that February 29 is Sadie Hawkins’ Day.
Sadie Hawkins was a character created by Al Capp as part of the Li’l Abner comic strip. She made her debut on 15 November 1937. Reportedly, Sadie was “homely” and unable to get a date. Her father Hezekiah Hawkins, a prominent and wealthy citizen of the fictional mountain town of Dogpatch, Kentucky, decided he’d help his 35-year-old daughter out. So, he created a day specifically for Sadie (i.e., Sadie Hawkins Day). On that particular day, the women of Dogpatch matched speed with the town’s eligible bachelors in a footrace. According to Capp, Sadie Hawkins Day was celebrated in November (NOT February). November was when we had our school dances, but at the time, I didn’t understand the significance. (Women’s Issues)
This image from Women You Should KnowFills in the blanks about Capp and the Sadie Hawkins’ tradition. “Calling all the bachelors in town, Hezekiah declared it ‘Sadie Hawkins Day’ and ordered a race of eligible bachelors with Sadie chasing after them… when a man was caught, he would be legally bound to marry her. The other town spinsters loved this idea so much that they declared Sadie Hawkins Day a mandatory annual event, which was recreated in the comic strip by Capp every November… for FORTY years!
“Sadie Hawkins Day wasn’t just a hit with the fictional spinsters of Dogpatch, it was also a hit with Capp’s real life readers. In 1939, two years after Sadie’s introduction, Life magazine reported over 200 colleges holding Sadie Hawkins Day events. It became a rite for girls at high schools and college campuses across the country.
“Understanding that Sadie Hawkins was a craze during a very different time in history helps to put its popularity into perspective, at least a little bit. As for the man who dreamed up this idea, Al Capp was apparently a known womanizer and misogynist, as well as an accused rapist. His reputation for ‘seducing and even sexually assaulting aspiring actresses, including a young Goldie Hawn and a distraught and disheveled Grace Kelly,’ along with sleeping with the college girls he met on his Sadie Hawkins Day tours preceded him.” (Women You Should Know)
(Image via Celebrate the History of Sadie Hawkinswww.people.com)
Wikipedia provides us a summary to of the story: I”n Li’l Abner, Sadie Hawkins was the daughter of one of Dogpatch‘s earliest settlers, Hekzebiah Hawkins. The ‘homeliest gal in all them hills,’ she grew frantic waiting for suitors to come a-courtin’. When she reached the age of 35, still a spinster, her father was even more frantic—about Sadie living at home for the rest of her life. In desperation, he called together all the unmarried men of Dogpatch and declared it ‘Sadie Hawkins Day.’ A foot race was decreed, with Sadie in hot pursuit of the town’s eligible bachelors. She specifically had her eye on a boy who was already in a courtship with the cute farmers daughter, Theresa. She was the daughter of the area’s largest potato farmer, Bill Richmand, and, unlike Sadie, had a lot of courtship offers. Stud-muffin Adam Olis was her target, and because the engagement of Miss Theresa and Adam wasn’t official he was included in the race. With matrimony as the consequence of losing the foot race, the men of the town were running for their freedom. Turned out Adam Olis was in 4th place out of 10th leaving John Jonston as Sadie’s catch of the day. It seems likely that the concept’s origins lie in an inversion of the myth of Atalanta, who, reluctant to marry, agreed to wed whoever could outrun her in a footrace.
“When ah fires [my gun], all o’ yo’ kin start a-runnin! When ah fires agin—after givin’ yo’ a fair start—Sadie starts a runnin’. Th’ one she ketches’ll be her husbin.”
(Image from Women You Should Know) “The town spinsters decided that this was such a good idea, they made Sadie Hawkins Day a mandatory yearly event, much to the chagrin of Dogpatch bachelors. In the satirical spirit that drove the strip, many sequences revolved around the dreaded Sadie Hawkins Day race. If a woman caught a bachelor and dragged him, kicking and screaming, across the finish line before sundown—by law he had to marry her.
“Sadie Hawkins Day was first mentioned in the November 15, 1937 Li’l Abner daily strip, with the race actually taking place between November 19 and November 30 in the continuity. It would prove to be a popular annual feature in Li’l Abner, and a cultural phenomenon outside the strip. (see Schreiner, Dave; “Sadie’s First Run”, Li’l Abner Dailies Volume 3: 1937, Kitchen Sink Press, Princeton, WI, pg. 8.)”
Sadie Hawkins’ Day is different (but in many ways the same) as Lady’s Privilege Day, an Irish and Scottish tradition, which I’m discussing on Austen Authors today. You may read it HERE.
One of favorite things to do on or about Leap Year is watch the film by the same name with two of my favorite actors: Amy Adams and Matthew Goode. I am always a sucker for a guy with an Irish accent.
The Story: When Anna’s (Amy Adams) four-year anniversary to her boyfriend passes without an engagement ring, she decides to take matters into her own hands. Inspired by an Irish tradition that allows women to propose to men on Leap Day, Anna follows Jeremy (Adam Scott) to Dublin to propose to him. But after landing on the wrong side of Ireland, she must enlist the help of the handsome and carefree local Declan (Matthew Goode) to get her across the country. Along the way, they discover that the road to love can take you to very unexpected places.
Is it not odd that Austen chose originally to name her novel First Impressions, when it is not “first impressions,” which bring Elizabeth Bennet “enlightenment”?
Alan Taylor at the 
The State Library of New South Wales has a collection of Begging Letters Received by Banks from Various Persons 1786 – 1808. Purchased in 1884 from Lord Brabourne by Sir Saul Samuel, the Agent-General for New South Wales, the letters were later transferred to the Mitchell Library in 1910 as part of the Brabourne Collection. Sir Joseph Banks was the recipient of many letters requesting financial support, or his support in obtaining a position or promotion. [You can view the series at this Link: 
Meanwhile, in 1838, Charles Dickens writes in Nicholas Nickleby (Chapter 17), 
The Scarlet Pimpernel is the first novel in a series of historical fiction by Baroness Orczy, published in 1905. In Chapter 4, we find: 
Usages of swearing are like casual slang hard to pinpoint before the days of instant communications. We do not have transcripts of actual people in casual conversation. 
You might find Vic Gatrell’s City of Laughter: Sex and Satire in Eighteen Century London of interest. The book blurb tells us, “City of Laughter chronicles the rise and fall of a great tradition of ridicule and of the satirical, humorous, and widely circulated prints that sustained it. Focusing not on the polished wit upon which polite society prided itself, but rather on malicious, sardonic and satirical humor―humor that was bawdy, knowing and ironic―Vic Gatrell explores what this tradition says about Georgian views of the world and about their own pretensions. Taking the reader into the clubs and taverns where laughter flowed most freely, Gatrell examines how Londoners laughed about sex, scandal, fashion, drink and similar pleasures of life.
(Image via 
(Image from 
The Story: When Anna’s (Amy Adams) four-year anniversary to her boyfriend passes without an engagement ring, she decides to take matters into her own hands. Inspired by an Irish tradition that allows women to propose to men on Leap Day, Anna follows Jeremy (Adam Scott) to Dublin to propose to him. But after landing on the wrong side of Ireland, she must enlist the help of the handsome and carefree local Declan (Matthew Goode) to get her across the country. Along the way, they discover that the road to love can take you to very unexpected places. 
Every Woman Dreams... 
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