Rochester, England, Part of the Plot Line for “Lyon on the Inside” from Dragonblade Publishing

Posted on July 1, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

I have set the latter part of my latest Dragonblade novel in and around Rochester, England. One of the characters introduced in the novel “Lyon on the Inside” is a Scottish “gentleman,” who is familiar to both Lord Macdonald Duncan and Lord Aaran Graham. His name is Mr. Donegal MacAlasdair, who was at one time a friend of Lord Duncan. He is reportedly a renown religious scholar and is presenting a series of lectures at Rochester Cathedral. He also happens to be the long-time lover of Lord Aaran Graham’s stepmother, Lady Eímear Rayland, née Eímear Boyde, as well as formerly known as Lady Graham and Lady Roland. Ironically, Mr. MacAlasdair is staying at Rayland Hall while he lecturing at Rochester. If you smell something rotten in Kent . . .

For those of you who know me more as a Jane Austen fan fiction writer than as a Regency era writer, though they overlap, I set Lady Catherine de Bourgh’s estate, Rosings Park, outside of Rochester in all the novels in which she appears.

Rochester, England, is a historic town in the Medway unitary authority of Kent, England, situated on the River Medway, approximately 30 miles southeast of London. Renowned for its rich Roman, Saxon, and Norman history, it features the impressive 12th-century Rochester Castle (with one of England’s tallest keeps) and the historic Rochester Cathedral. Known for its strong connections to author Charles Dickens, the town retains a charming, historic atmosphere with a High Street filled with independent shops and medieval to Victorian architecture. 

Key Aspects of Rochester, England:

  • History & Heritage: Founded by the Romans as Durobrivae in 43 AD, the city was a strategic crossing point over the River Medway. It served as a major bishopric starting in the 7th century. The History of Rochester site tells us, “It wasn’t until 1088 after the Norman invasion that Rochester had its first stone castle built on the remains of the old Roman Fort. The then King, Rufus asked his Bishop Gundulf, an architect, to build him a stone castle and later a magnificent Cathedral, which is the second oldest in the country. Bishop Gundolf also built a leper hospital namely St. Bartholomew’s which was the oldest hospital in the country, albeit the original hospital has since disappeared.
  • Rochester Cathedral: The second oldest cathedral in England, founded in 604 AD.
  • High Street: Known for its cobbled streets, Tudor, Georgian, and Victorian buildings.
  • Charles Dickens Connection: The famous author lived nearby at Gad’s Hill Place and frequently featured Rochester in his novels, including The Pickwick Papers and Great Expectations.
  • City Status Misconception: While often referred to as a city due to its cathedral, Rochester technically lost its official city status in 1998 during local government reorganization, making it a “lost city” in terms of administrative definition.
  • Location: Part of the “Medway Towns” (along with Chatham and Gillingham), it is easily accessible from London. 
Posted in Anglo-Normans, Anglo-Saxons, architecture, book release, British history, buildings and structures, Church of England, Dragonblade Publishers, England, Georgian England, Georgian Era, Great Britain, hero, heroines, historical fiction, history, Jane Austen, Living in the Regency, Living in the UK, mystery, Pride and Prejudice, publishing, real life tales, Regency era, Regency romance, religion, research, series, suspense, writing | Tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , | Leave a comment

Traitor Tuesday ~ Celebrating 250 Years of the United States as a Separate Nation: William Williams: “I have signed the Declaration of Independence. I shall be hung.”

Posted on June 30, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

William_Williams-202x300

William Williams was 45 years of age when he signed the Declaration of Independence. He was the father of three children and a merchant by trade. He died at the age of 80 in the year 1811.

William Williams was born in Lebanon, Connecticut, on April 18, 1731, the son of Pastor Solomon Williams, D.D., and Mary Porter Williams. William enrolled at Harvard College at age 16, graduated at 20 with honorable distinction, and commenced theological studies with his father. “The family of William Williams is said to have been originally from Wales. A branch of it came to America in the year 1630, and settled in Roxbury, Massachusetts. His grandfather, who bore the same name, was the minister of Hatfield, Massachusetts; and his father, Solomon Williams, D. D. was the minister of a parish in Lebanon, where he was settled fifty-four years. Solomon Williams, the father, married a daughter of Colonel Porter, of Hadley, by whom he had five sons and three daughters. The sons were all liberally educated. Of these, Eliphalet was settled, as a minister of the gospel, in East-Hartford, where be continued to officiate for about half a century. Ezekiel was sheriff of the county of Hartford for more than thirty years; he died a few years since at Wethersfield, leaving behind him a character distinguished for energy and enterprise, liberality and benevolence.” (Colonial Hall)

“William was a man of medium build, erect and well proportioned. He had dark brown eyes and black hair. Normally he was a man self-controlled and discrete; but it is said, upon occasion, his strong feelings led him to ‘violence of language.’ His plan for life was to follow his father in Christian ministry. The French and Indian Wars (1754-1763) interrupted this when he enlisted in the Continental Army. He joined his uncle, Colonel Ephraim Williams, and accompanied a British military expedition to Lake George in northeastern New York. On September 8, 1755, at Rocky Brook, four miles from Lake George, British Major General William Johnson, leading 1,200 provincial troops, engaged Monsieur le Baron de Dieskau in a fierce battle. Colonel Ephraim Williams commanded a regiment of provincial troops, and at the first volley was shot through the head.” (The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence)

historicsigning3 (Mary Williams’ brother, John Trumbull, became famous as a painter of the Revolution. His works include the portrait above of William Williams, and the four large paintings of the Revolution now hanging in the Rotunda of the U. S. Capitol. http://www.dsdi1776.com/signers-by-state/william-williams/) Williams married Mary Trumbull, the daughter of the Royal Governor Jonathan Trumbull. Mary’s family included connections to John Adams, Oliver Wolcott, and William Ellery. Williams was forty at the time, and Mary was 25. They married on 14 February 1771. The couple had three children: Solomon, Faith, and William.

“William became an ardent supporter of the proposition for Independence, and gave his support financially through his own purse as well as through many effective writings. Williams presented the claims of the colonists in the press, and helped compose many of the Revolutionary state papers of the Royal Governor Jonathon Trumbull. During the 1760s he served on committees that considered the Stamp Act, the Connecticut claims to the Susquehanna lands, the case of the Mohegan Indians, and settlement of the boundary disputes between Connecticut and Massachusetts.

“Williams served as a Colonel in the Connecticut Militia (1773-75), but he was also the son-in-law of the Royal Governor! Governor Trumbull was the only royal governor to support the revolution. In 1775 William went from house to house soliciting private donations to defray the cost of sending Connecticut troops to aid in the capture of Ticonderoga.

“The Connecticut Assembly appointed Williams a delegate to the 2d Continental Congress in June, 1776, to take the place of Oliver Wolcott, who had become ill and had to return to Connecticut. Williams’ letter to Wolcott dated August 12, 1776, said that he did not arrive in Philadelphia until near the last of July, after the most Sultry & fatiqueing journey I ever performed, by much. The City has been since I came & yet is the most uncomfortable Place that I ever saw …, his language confirming the extreme heat and humidity attributed to Philadelphia at the time of the Declaration deliberations. Williams did not arrive in time to take part in the debates for Independence in Congress, nor was he present to cast a vote for the Declaration. His timing did permit him to sign that parchment in August when most of the other delegates did so.” (The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence)

“In 1779 Williams accepted worthless paper money in exchange for $2,000 in coin for military supplies. He was said to have remarked that if independence were established he would get his money back; if not, the loss would be of no account to him.

“Some had criticized Williams for resigning his colonelcy of the 12th Militia Regiment at the outbreak of the Revolution in order to accept the election to the Continental Congress. His courage, however, was evidenced in 1781, when word arrived in Lebanon of the traitor Benedict Arnold’s raid upon New London. He immediately mounted his horse and rode twenty-three miles in three hours to offer his services as a volunteer. On arrival the town was already in flames.

“In the winter of 1781, while a French regiment was stationed in Lebanon, Williams moved out of his home and turned it over to French officers.

williams“Williams was a delegate to the convention which adopted the Articles of Confederation, and then again in 1788 he was a delegate to the ratifying convention at Hartford to consider the adoption by Connecticut of the Constitution of the United States. He voted for it, but objected to the clause forbidding religious tests.

“His later years were spent as a county judge. In 1810 his eldest son, Solomon, died, and he never seemed to be able to get over the loss. With rapidly declining health, the old patriarch died at 81 on August 2, 1811. Interment was in the Trumbull Cemetery, about a mile east of the town of Lebanon.

“In Washington, D.C, on the north side of the mall near the George Washington monument, there is a small park and lagoon celebrating the signers of the Declaration of Independence. One of the 56 granite blocks there is engraved with the name of William Williams. In the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol hangs the famous Trumbull painting “The Declaration of Independence. William Williams is shown standing on the right at the back of the room in a group of two, with a brown coat. Next to him, on the right in a red coat, is Oliver Wolcott.” (The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence)

Posted in America, American History, British history, commerce, Declaration of Independence, Georgian Era, Great Britain, history, political stance, real life tales | 2 Comments

Question from a Reader: Is “Debutant” the Correct Word for a Girl Making Her Society “Debut” in the Regency Era?

Posted on June 29, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

Okay, to the best of my knowledge the term “debutant” was later than the Regency Era.
The word “debutante” is of later vintage than the Regency. She would be referred to as “coming out”, per Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park, where the discussion is whether Fanny Price is “out” or not.

The reference often quoted to determine this issue comes from a letter written in 1817, which calls young ladies “debutants” was written by a young man. From the tone of the parts I read, he was not being kind by using that word. Another reference can be found in a newspaper in Scotland sometime between 1830-1840.

The usual use of the word “debut” and “debutant” was in regard to actors and actresses. If a man said girls were “debutantes'” I fear he might have been comparing them to actresses who often went overboard when making an acting debut.

Debutante balls were later. During the Regency one might or might not have a ball for a young lady. The Queen did not hold drawing rooms regularly from 1811 to her death. It was not necessary to make one’s curtsey to the Queen or to hold a ball for a girl to enter society.

Girls wore white or pastels because they were the fashionable colors. It was not, as many assume, a sign of her virginity. The girls wore fashionable evening gowns. They wore their hair as was fashionable. They did not do group introductions.

Prior to about 1817 debutant refers to an actress debuting on stage – http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=debutante

What you might want to look into is court presentation:

https://susanaellisauthor.wordpress.com/2013/08/22/presentation-at-court-in-the-regency-period/

http://historicalhussies.blogspot.com/2009/06/being-presented-to-queen.html

You have no idea how much research I did on court presentations for my REALM series, for there is a scene in both A Touch of Scandal and A Touch of Velvet on the necessary dresses, hair style, how to walk into the room and exit the room backwards, etc.

Daughters of peers made their curtsey to the queen when their  parents thought them old enough. Lady Sarah Spencer mentioned her presentation in a letter to her grandmother. Then when the young lady married a peer or a man who might attend court, she was presented again. A lady did not need to be presented to be out in Society. During much of the Regency period, drawing rooms and presentations were less common than before the time George III became ill.

 One had to be presented to attend court functions, but not to be considered out or to marry.

1860 Presentation at Court ~ Public Domain

A family might or might not also host a ball for the daughter. It could be held at the family’s townhouse or elsewhere, depending on the size of the house and those invited. All of this depends on what the family could afford (how rich are they and how much do they want to impress others?). The ball also might be arranged by the girl’s godmother (such events were generally arranged by women), especially if the family did not have deep pockets.

This is a piece from Jane Austen’s World on the cost of living in Regency England, if you are interested in that information.

https://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/tag/cost-of-living-in-regency-england/

In many eras, the court was the arbiter of fashion and, thus, vital to the ton.  This was not true during the Regency.  So presentation only really mattered for those who expected to participate in court functions.  Society had other arbiters of fashion.

Posted in aristocracy, British history, customs and tradiitons, England, Georgian England, Georgian Era, historical fiction, history, Living in the Regency, reading, Regency era, Regency romance, research, terminology, tradtions, Victorian era, word choices | Tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , | Leave a comment

Dance Sets at a Ball or a Country Assembly in the Regency Era?

Posted on June 26, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

Though I thought I had covered the idea of dance sets in last Fridays piece on “Dance Cards,” evidently there was still some confusion, so I will try this again.

QUESTION FROM A READER: My understanding is that in balls, dances were planned and completed in sets of two. If that is true, were they the same kind of dance, or two different kinds of dances, such a country dance and then a quadrille? Also, did people follow that same format in less formal settings such as a country ball or dancing after a dinner party or during a house party? 

The general custom was to have dances in sets of two. They were usually the same type of dances. After every two sets there would be a fast single dance like a boulanger, jig, etc. Local assemblies could be more informal, perhaps even taking requests from those in attendance, but that is not a proven idea, so do not quote me on that part.

Either the Master of Ceremony in the local assemblies or the ranking woman at a ball decided which kind of dance it would be.

Throughout much of the Georgian era, formal balls and court balls still opened with the minuet. Court balls in England officially stopped opening with the minuet in 1802, when the Lord Chamberlain, the Earl of Salisbury (James Cecil), dropped it from the official program. The decision came after the dance had been in decline and subject to some ridicule in fashionable society. 

Key details about the minuet’s decline:

Up until the late 18th Century, the minuet was the formal, ceremonial opening dance at royal birthday balls and other formal events, performed one couple at a time in order of social precedence. However a growing sense of dislike soon make the dance unpopular among the aristocracy. The dance was considered difficult to learn and required exacting performance, which many younger gentlemen found a social burden, preferring livelier country dances or the waltz.

Satirical depictions, such as Henry Bunbury’s popular 1787 caricature “A Long Minuet As Danced At Bath,” mocked the dance and its often awkward performers and contributed to its loss of prestige. The official court ball, traditionally held at St. James’s Palace, was discontinued after 1802 due to the declining years of King George III and Queen Charlotte, among other factors. When King George IV began hosting grand entertainments years later, the minuet was not part of the repertoire, though some dancing masters continued to teach it privately for its perceived benefits in posture and grace. 

A Long Minute as Danced at Bath ~ A strip design of ten couples in different stages of the minuet, All dance in silence; the expressions of the male dancers denote anxiety, determination, or complacency. All are intended to be ugly, or awkward, or both, but the figures have charm, and even in some cases a certain grace. Above the design is engraved: ‘Bos’, ‘Fur’, ‘Sus’, ‘atque Sacerdos’. None of the men suggests a parson, most are lean and none corpulent by eighteenth-century standards. Beneath the title is engraved: ‘Longa Tysonum Minuit Quid Velit et possit rerum concordia discors. Horace.’ 25 June 1787
Stipple printed on four plates joined together ~ The British Museum

The general custom was to have dances in sets of two. They were usually the same type of dances. After every two sets there would be a fast single dance like a la boulanger, jig, etc. Local assemblies could be more informal. All I have seen suggests that single dances were included between sets, and they were a change of tempo.

Either the Master of Ceremony in the local assemblies or one of the women decided which kind of dance it would be.

Additional Question: Have you ever seen a primary source mention a pair of dances which were not both country dances?  (If so, I’d love to have that cite!)  And FWIW, do you mean “reel” when you say “jig”?

Dancing at a house party would be noticeably more informal than anything held in a public assembly room, even a very small assembly room like that in Jane Austen’s “The Watsons.”  How large is the house party?  If it is small enough and the folks all know each other, I think you can do anything you want there. The same if you are writing about an impromptu dancing after a dinner party (again, with the idea the gathering if is small and the people all pretty much know each other.)

However, it you are looking for a period source that shows that “paired dances” existed outside public dances then look to this passage in Austen’s “Emma,” in which Frank Churchill tells Emma that the small dance party he has been planning (which is to be hosted by his father, Mr Weston) has been moved to an inn because of its larger rooms:

     Before the middle of the next day, he [Frank Churchill] was at Hartfield; and he entered the room with such an agreeable smile as certified the continuance of the scheme.  It soon appeared that he came to announce an improvement.

    “Well, Miss Woodhouse,” he almost immediately began, “your inclination for dancing has not been quite frightened away, I hope, by the terrors of my father’s little rooms.  I bring a new proposal on the subject: — a thought of my father’s, which waits only your approbation to be acted upon.  May I hope for the honour of your hand for the two first dances of this little projected ball, to be given, not at Randalls, but at the Crown Inn?”

So there it is — a pair of dances, at a private ball! 

I will note, though, that it is clear that the entire time that no one is dancing anything but country dances. So my other suspicion, that the “paired dances” only applied to country dances, is still in effect. 

Oh, and if anyone’s interested, chapters 28-29 of Emma have quite a nice lot of details about planning a small private ball (particularly in regard to the dancing.)

Posted in aristocracy, British history, customs and tradiitons, dancing, Georgian England, Georgian Era, JASNA, Living in the Regency, reading, Regency era | Tagged , , , , , , , | Leave a comment

What is Benefit of Clergy in Court Cases?

Posted on June 24, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

After Monday’s post on expunging a criminal court record, I had several question on what I meant at the end of the piece, where I mentioned “the benefit of clergy.”

Premit me to first give a brief overview of the situation.

The benefit of clergy was a historical legal practice that allowed clergymen, and later first-time offenders, to escape severe secular punishment by being tried in a church court under more lenient canon law. The primary benefit was avoiding the death penalty, as ecclesiastical courts were less likely to impose it. Over time, it evolved into a way to offer a reduced sentence or a lesser punishment for specific crimes. 

Britannica defines Benefit of Clery as benefit of clergy, formerly a useful device for avoiding the death penalty in English and American criminal law. In England, in the late 12th century, the church succeeded in compelling Henry II and the royal courts to grant every clericus, or “clerk” (i.e., a member of the clergy below a priest), accused of a capital offense immunity from trial or punishment in the secular courts. On producing letters of ordination, the accused clerk was turned over to the local bishop for trial in the bishop’s court, which never inflicted the death penalty and frequently moved for acquittal. Later, anyone having the remotest relationship to the church could also claim benefit of clergy. In the 14th century, the royal judges turned this clerical immunity into a discretionary device for mitigating the harsh criminal law by holding that a layman, convicted of a capital offense, might be deemed a clerk and obtain clerical immunity if he could show that he could read, usually the 51st Psalm. Later, a layman was allowed to claim benefit of clergy only once.

The historical context of Psalm 51 is King David’s deep repentance after committing adultery with Bathsheba and orchestrating the murder of her husband, Uriah the Hittite. The psalm is his personal confession to God, written after the prophet Nathan confronted him with his sins, which are detailed in the books of 2 Samuel chapters 11 and 12.  

Psalm 51 is a prayer of repentance. The most well-known verses include the opening line, “Have mercy upon me, O God, according to thy lovingkindness,” and the famous request, “Create in me a clean heart, O God; and renew a right spirit within me”. The full text is a prayer of confession and a plea for cleansing and restoration from sin. 

Initially, the benefit of clergy was an immunity for church officials accused of a crime, allowing them to be tried in an ecclesiastical court instead of a secular one.

Church courts were generally more lenient and would not sentence an individual to death.

The privilege expanded to any man who could read, and he would read a passage from the Bible, such as Psalm 51, to claim the benefit.

The process eventually evolved into a legal fiction, allowing a first-time offender convicted of a “clergyable” crime to receive a lesser sentence, such as branding or imprisonment, instead of execution.

The privilege was not absolute. It had its limitations. Certain heinous crimes, such as arson, burglary, and later, horse stealing, were specifically made “unclergyable” through acts of Parliament.

The practice was gradually limited and finally abolished in the United Kingdom in 1827. However, it continued to be used in some American states even after its abolition in England. 

If you wish to know more, you might try The Evolving Meaning of Benefit of Clergy by James Biser Whisker and John R. Coe.

Initially, the concept of benefit of clergy was created to allow the Christian Church to judge, and, if necessary, punish its own transgressors. Throughout its European history various rulers have insisted upon trying all persons for secular crimes in the normal courts. The great clash came between English King Henry II and his Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Becket. The subsequent murder of Becket set back the secular cause until Henry VIII, as part of his campaign to become absolute ruler, began to make major changes in the app0lication of benefit of clergy. As it was transferred to North America, it became applicable to virtually all capital crimes unless the law made an offense unclergyable. It continued in use through the colonial period, and even after independence it was recognized in some states. It became virtually the only appeal of capital crimes for slaves in the South. Benefit was available only once per individual and commonly those granted clergy were branded on the hand.
Posted in American History, British history, Church of England, England, Georgian England, Georgian Era, Great Britain, history, laws of the land, Living in the Regency, real life tales, Regency era, religion | Tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , | Leave a comment

Traitor Tuesday ~ Celebrating 250 Years of the United States as a Separate Nation: George Wythe, a Signer of the Declaration of Independence Who Was Poisoned by His Heir

Posted on June 23, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

georgewythe_sm

I am quite accustomed to traveling through Wytheville, Virginia, so named after George Wythe, a signer of the Declaration of Independence and a mentor to Thomas Jefferson. Interstate Highways 77 and 81 were constructed to intersect at the town. I pass through it often when headed north out of North Carolina to my home state of West Virginia. The opening scenes of my novel, The Road to Understanding, is set there, for travelers from the north often crossed from Virginia into the wilderness, that would later become states, during those early years of exploration and the “spreading out” of the United States. In fact, there was once a state called “Franklin,” and named after Benjamin Franklin in the western part of North Carolina, which is the setting for my tale, but that does not speak to the subject at hand: George Wythe. He was a lawyer of some 50 years of age when he signed the Declaration of Independence. He died in 1806 at the age of 80.

George Wythe (pronounced “with”) was born in 1726 (the second son of three children) at Chesterville in what is now Hampton, Virginia. His father was Thomas Wythe, a planter who died soon after George’s birth. Wythe was reared by his mother, Margaret Walker Wythe, and probably received his early education from her. She taught him Latin and Greek, as well as reading, writing, and his numbers. Margaret Wythe instilled in her son a love of learning that served him all his life. He probably attended for a time a grammar school operated by the College of William and Mary. Even as an old man, Wythe took up new subjects, teaching himself Hebrew, for example.

Both parents died when Wythe was young, and he grew up under the guardianship of his older brother, Thomas. Thomas Wythe later sent George to Prince George County to read law under an uncle, Stephen Dewey, who lived near Petersburg. In 1746, at age 20, he joined the bar, moved to Spotsylvania County, and became associated with a lawyer there. Admitted to the colony’s General Court bar, Wythe first practiced in Elizabeth City County and later with the prominent lawyer Zachary Lewis. In 1747 he married his partner’s sister, Ann Lewis. Wythe was admitted to the York County bar January 16, 1748; his wife Ann died August 8 the same year. The young widower was appointed clerk to the Committee of Privileges and Elections of the House of Burgesses in October.

In 1754 Lt. Gov. Robert Dinwiddie appointed him as acting colonial attorney general, a position that he held for only a few months. The next year, Wythe’s brother died and he inherited the family estate. He chose, however, to live in Williamsburg in the house that his new father-in-law, an architect, designed and built for him and his wife, Elizabeth Taliaferro. They married in 1755, and their only child died in infancy.

 Wythe was admitted to the York County bar January 16, 1748; his wife Ann died August 8 the same year. The young widower was appointed clerk to the Committee of Privileges and Elections of the House of Burgesses in October.

At Williamsburg, Wythe immersed himself in further study of the classics and the law and achieved accreditation by the colonial supreme court. He served in the House of Burgesses from the mid-1750s until 1775, first as delegate and after 1769 as clerk. In 1768 he became mayor of Williamsburg, and the next year he sat on the board of visitors of the College of William and Mary. During these years he also directed the legal studies of young scholars, notably Thomas Jefferson. Wythe and Jefferson maintained a lifelong friendship, first as mentor and pupil and later as political allies.

“No man ever left behind him a character more venerated than George Wythe,” Thomas Jefferson wrote. “His virtue was of the purest tint; his integrity inflexible, and his justice exact; of warm patriotism, and, devoted as he was to liberty, and the natural and equal rights of man, he might truly be called the Cato of his country.” (Biography of George Wyatt)

Jefferson learned the law from Wythe, and, in a manner of speaking, Wythe’s signature on the Declaration was a teacher’s endorsement of his pupil’s finest brief. Among Wythe’s other law pupils were John Marshall, perhaps the greatest chief justice of the United States, and St. George Tucker. When Wythe was Virginia’s chancellor, Henry Clay was his assistant.

imgresWythe first exhibited revolutionary leanings in 1764 when Parliament hinted to the colonies that it might impose a stamp tax. By then an experienced legislator, he drafted for the House of Burgesses a remonstrance to Parliament so strident that his fellow delegates modified it before adoption. Wythe was one of the first to express the concept of separate nationhood for the colonies within the British empire.

An early opponent of the Stamp Act, Wythe was appointed to the Committee of Petition and Remonstrance in 1764 and drafted the remonstrance to the House of Commons that protested against the tax. Nevertheless, Wythe, like Peyton Randolph and others, opposed freshman burgess Patrick Henry’s stormy resolves against the act the next year, regarding the resolves as redundant and ill timed.

wytheDespite Virginia’s deepening disputes with the Crown, Wythe maintained close friendships with governors Francis Fauquier and Norborne Berkeley, baron de Botetourt.

When war broke out, Wythe volunteered for the army but was sent to the Continental Congress. Although present from 1775 through 1776, Wythe exerted little influence and signed the Declaration of Independence after the formal signing in August 1776. That same year, Wythe, Jefferson, and Edmund Pendleton undertook a 3-year project to revise Virginia’s legal code. In 1777 Wythe also presided as speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates.

Wythe’s real love was teaching. In 1779 Jefferson and other officials of the College of William and Mary created the first chair of law in a U.S. institution of higher learning and appointed Wythe to fill it. In that position, he educated America’s earliest college-trained lawyers, among them John Marshall and James Monroe. In 1787 he attended the Constitutional Convention but played an insignificant role. He left the proceedings early and did not sign the Constitution. The following year, however, he was one of the Federalist leaders at the Virginia ratifying convention. There he presided over the Committee of the Whole and offered the resolution for ratification.

gwythe_will

George Wythe’s will of 1806 leaving law books to Thomas Jefferson https://www.history. org/almanack/people/bios/ biowythe.cfm

In 1806, in his eightieth year, Wythe died at Richmond under mysterious circumstances, probably of poison administered by his grandnephew and heir, George Wythe Sweeney. Reflecting a lifelong aversion to slavery, Wythe emancipated his slaves in his will. Elizabeth Taliaferro Wythe died in 1787. Long a foe of slavery, George Wythe freed several slaves, including Lydia Broadnax, who chose to remain in Wythe’s service. He conveyed other slaves to Elizabeth’s Taliaferro relatives. Near the end of his life, Wythe wrote his will in favor of a grandnephew, George Wythe Sweeney, but also gave generous bequests to his former slaves Michael Brown and Lydia Broadnax. A ne’er-do-well, Sweeney forged checks against Wythe’s accounts to cover pressing debts. Hoping to avoid detection and inherit his great uncle’s entire estate, he resorted to murder. Strawberries or coffee seem to have been the vehicle by which Sweeney poisoned both his great uncle and Michael Brown, who died within days. Wythe endured two weeks of agony, but as he lay dying, Sweeney’s forgeries were discovered, and Wythe revised his will.

400px-WytheMonument

THIS TABLET IS DEDICATED TO MARK THE SITE WHERE LIE THE MORTAL REMAINS OF GEORGE WYTHE. BORN 1726—DIED 1806. JURIST AND STATESMAN, TEACHER OF RANDOLPH, JEFFERSON AND MARSHALL, FIRST PROFESSOR OF LAW IN THE UNITED STATES, FIRST VIRGINIA SIGNER OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. ERECTED BY PATRIOTIC CITIZENS OF VIRGINIA, A. D. 1922.

His grave is in the yard of St. John’s Episcopal Church in Richmond.

Sources: 

America’s Founding Fathers 

American History from Revolution to Reconstruction and Beyond 

Colonial Williamsburg 

Monticello 

Signers of the Declaration of Independence 

Wythepedia: W&M Law Library

Posted in American History, British history, Declaration of Independence, Georgian England, Georgian Era, Great Britain, history, Living in the Regency, Regency era | Tagged , , , , , | Leave a comment

Expunging Criminal Records in the Regency Era

Posted on June 22, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

A reader recently wrote to ask me what I knew of expunging criminal records during the Regency Era. In truth, I knew some, but not all of the ins and out of this process.

Question from a Reader: Was expungement (erasing the criminal conviction from records) possible during the Regency? Could a conviction be overturned? Alleged crime occurred in the northern part of England. Any ideas on the process? I have a character falsely convicted. Do you know how they would get it done? Was it even possible? Any resources you can recommend would be greatly appreciated.

Response: The concept of expunging or formally erasing a criminal record as understood in modern law did not exist during the British Regency era (roughly 1811–1820). Criminal records from that time are permanent historical documents. Instead of being imprisoned, most sought a pardon or mitigation of the circumstances. One plot point that could be used in such a story is there was no centralized record keeping, meaning the man who was pardoned or who made the injured “whole” by repayment or some other sort of mitigation could up and move from say Yorkshire to Cornwall and likely no one would be the wiser of his previous brush with the law.

Pardons Meant: Convicted criminals, their families, or friends could submit petitions to the Home Secretary requesting a reduction in sentence or a full pardon. Judges’ reports, witness testimonies, and information about the prisoner’s character and behavior in prison were all taken into consideration. A pardon, if granted, could spare an individual from severe punishment (such as execution or transportation), but, as I said above, it did not erase the historical record of the trial and conviction itself.

There was not a record of all the cases though, so if one sought a pardon, a record had to be made.

If the case was interesting or the person one of interest the pampleteers would write it up.

Where the aristocracy and the gentry were concerned, convictions could be sent to the king for a pardon. Other cases could be sent to the House of Lords as the appeals court. One thing is certain: The man’s attorneys had to have had a record made and appeal it immediately to the House of Lords to review it. They could also ask the king for a pardon, but that  usually means the person was guilty, but was spared by the King’s mercy. There usually was not much time between the conviction and the  execution. Transportation took longer to arrange.

All of the processes would be VERY public.

Mitigation of Sentence: Juries often used mechanisms such as “partial verdicts” or “benefit of clergy” to reduce the charge to a non-capital offense, thereby avoiding the death penalty. The original sentence might be withdrawn if the prisoner agreed to serve in the army or navy, or if responsible members of the community could provide “sureties” (a bond to guarantee future good behavior).

No Centralized Records (Early in the Era): While records of court cases (such as the Old Bailey Proceedings) were kept, detailed, centralized personal records about criminals were not routinely collected until later in the 19th century. This meant that once a person had served their sentence or received a pardon, they might be able to start a new life elsewhere without their past following them, although their local reputation would certainly precede them in their immediate community. 

You who follow me know that I bring almost every post back to Jane Austen. Though Jane Austen’s aunt was acquitted of theft at the Tauton assize, the case was known and she was forever labeled a shoplifter because one of the publishers wrote a pamphlet about the case. Austen’s aunt, Jane Leigh Perrot, was arrested for shoplifting in 1799. She was accused of stealing white lace from a haberdashery in Bath, England, but was acquitted at trial. The jury, who deliberated for only about fifteen minutes. Some speculate she was framed or that her prominent family status helped her case. However, she had been held in prison for seven months before being brought to trail on the charges against her.

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In one documented case inYork, a man was accused of shoplifting a piece of fruit from a shopkeeper. There was no record as a friend paid the fine, but the whole town knew about it. So, though there was no criminal record, there was a stigma following the man around, nevertheless.

In truth, something as simple as shoplifting a piece of fruit would be a difficult crime to prosecute and convict. If the man just picked up an apple and started munching, he would be asked to pay for it. If he  was away from the shop when he was apprehended, the shopkeeper had to show that the man had actually been in his shop and that the piece of fruit was taken from his shop. Moreover, the actual apple had to be entered in evidence. There had to be a means. for the shopkeeper to prove that the piece of fruit was from his shop and not from some other vendor.

If everything could be established, the case would usually just be tried by the local Justice of the Peace. If convicted the man would pay for the fruit and the costs of the courts. He might also be sent to the  stocks. It is also possible that he would plead benefit of clergy and just be branded on the thumb.

Posted in aristocracy, British history, Church of England, England, Georgian England, Georgian Era, history, Jane Austen, laws of the land, Living in the Regency, real life tales, Regency era | Tagged , , , , , , | Leave a comment

Dance Cards in the Regency Era? Yea or Nay?

Posted on June 19, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

Recently, I again had a writer ask me about the use of dance cards in the Regency.


Thomas Rowlandson, 1813

In truth, I have not found any period references to hostesses having dance cards for her guests. Thomas Wilson never mentions them in his Etiquette of the Ballroom. They are ubiquitous in novels of our day.

General Etiquette and Ballroom Culture website tells us, “Thomas Wilson, in The Complete System of Country Dancing, includes a section titled, “The Etiquette of the Ball Room as it Particularly Relates to Country Dancing” in which he outlines the rules of etiquette for public and private Balls.  One of the first points that Wilson includes is the drawing of numbers to assign places in the dance or to take place according to precedence.  He also states that a minuet is the most appropriate opening for a ball.  Bows and curtsies were observed at the beginning and end of each dance. 

“He also includes a number of points about what not to do.  Ladies could not dance together, nor could gentlemen, unless given permission by the Master of Ceremonies, which could only occur when there were uneven numbers.  Couples had to stand when a dance was called because refusing to showed disrespect to the lady calling it.  During a country dance, making noise, such as clapping, hissing, snapping, or yelling, was not permitted. Most importantly, the final point Wilson makes is that, to preserve the order and prevent disputes, the points of etiquette relating to the guests should be written down and displayed prominently at assemblies.” 

These are some key points of Wilson’s book.

Thomas Wilson’s The Etiquette of the Ballroom (first published in 1812) provided a guide to conduct during dances, emphasizing decorum, orderly conduct, and graceful movement. Key rules included gentlemen wearing appropriate attire (no boots, spurs, or canes), avoiding disruptive noises like clapping or hissing, and respecting the established order of the dance and the room. It also covered specific dance protocols, such as the beginning and end of dances and the proper way to handle sets. 

Specific etiquette rules …

  • Attire: Gentlemen were prohibited from wearing boots, spurs, gaiters, or trousers, and loose pantaloons were not considered appropriate for a formal ball.
  • Conduct: Hissing, clapping, snapping fingers, or making other noises to disturb the company were strictly forbidden.
  • Dance order: No dance should be performed twice in one evening. If a couple stopped or repeated a figure, they were expected to drop out or stand aside so as not to interrupt those following.
  • Set composition: When sets were split, they should contain an equal number of dancers.
  • Respect and permission: Couples should observe the usual bows and courtesies at the beginning and end of each dance. No two ladies should dance together without the Master of the Ceremonies’ permission, which was sometimes granted due to a shortage of men.
  • Professionalism: The rules aimed to prevent disputes and ensure the smooth running of the assembly, even suggesting that the etiquette rules be displayed prominently.
  • Graceful movement: Dancers were advised to move with a relaxed, upright carriage and an easy sway, with nothing seeming “studied” or labored. Hands should be raised gently when joining a partner, and feet should be pointed downwards and slightly turned outward. 

For one thing, Thomas Wilson does not mention is dance cards at all in his Companion to the Ballroom, published in 1816. Of course, as he also says that he doesn’t speak for the practices at the high society balls, the Haut Ton might have different practices. 

Wilson also says that the practice in many places was for the highest ranking lady at a public assembly to choose the dance when it was time to take to the floor.

Jane Austen mentions this in The Watsons.

Still, I would not think that there would be much need for dance cards until after 1818 when the waltz and other dances from the Continent had been introduced and balls no longer consisted of  4 sets of two country or contra dances plus a boulanger or reel to change the pace.

Dance cards were in use in Vienna and other places on the Continent where there was a greater variety of dances.

I know many authors do have dance cards in their novels. I have even tried it once or twice, but I never made the dance cards a major point in the story line, just a passing fancy, so to speak.

During the Regency, the nature of the dances made a dance card as an accessory truly unnecessary. However, some have mentioned reading about the ladies writing on the ivory sticks of a fan or on a small note pad.

I have seen references in works on fans to fans printed with dance steps and fans with ivory sticks on which people could write a name. Also, small little pads of paper and pencil were mentioned in which ladies could  write down the name of the man requesting set 5.

According to Thomas Wilson, director of dance at King’s Theatre, proprietor of a dance studio, and author of several books on dance in the time period, the honor of choosing the next dance fell to the highest ranking woman present and the next one to the next highest–a headache for a MC!!! or hostess!! Surely any female could remember that she was to dance the 3rd set with Jones; 4th set, Miller; 5th set, Stevens, and Lord Carlton for last set.

Wilson does say that he does not presume to speak for balls given by aristocracy, but he had not heard of any  vast differences between what he said and what was practiced among the TON. The aristocrats were more likely to do what they wanted.

Dances were usually in sets of 2. Sometimes a single dance with a change of pace like a Boulanger or Jig would be interposed between 3rd and 4th sets or after 2nd and 4th sets.

We do not really know the history of dance cards in England. I have a couple of 19th century etiquette books and none mention dance cards. Moreover, there is no writer of the period, like Fanny Burney or Jane Austen, who mention balls using dance cards.

Posted in aristocracy, British history, customs and tradiitons, dancing, England, Georgian England, Georgian Era, history, Jane Austen, Living in the Regency, Regency era | Tagged , , , , , , , , | 2 Comments

Iron Plates Used in Regency Era Coaches + the Upcoming Release of “Lyon on the Inside” from Dragonblade Publishing, Arriving 24 June 2026

Posted on June 15, 2026 by Regina Jeffers


In one of the final scenes of Lyon on the Inside, as well as the series, our hero and heroine are captured by the “murderer” who has taunted Lord Macdonald Duncan’s family for nearly a year. Lord Aaran Graham, our hero, and Lady Freya Cunningham, our heroine, are tied to the joints of a moving carriage, but is that possible? Here is my answer.

In Regency-era coaches, iron plates, hoops, bolts, and screws were fundamental components used to secure the various wooden parts of the carriage body and undercarriage, ensuring structural integrity and durability. 

Key Uses of Iron Plates and Joints

Securing Joints: The junctures where wooden components met were critical stress points. These were “cemented by white-lead and oil, and secured by iron hoops, plates, bolts, and screws” to prevent the wood from shrinking, separating, or breaking during movement.

Carriage Framework (Undercarriage): The entire framework supporting the coach body, known as the “carriage,” was a composite structure of wood and iron. This design was essential for resisting injuries incurred during travel on often rough roads.

Axle Integration: Iron was used for the axletrees, which were situated in grooves within wooden crossbars beneath the carriage body. The wheels revolved around the ends of the iron axles.

Suspension Systems: The Regency era saw innovations in suspension, largely reliant on iron and steel components.

C-Springs: These curved springs, made of overlapping plates, attached to the carriage body via strong iron work, replacing earlier, more primitive suspension methods.

Elliptical Springs: Invented around the start of the Regency period (1804), these springs were composed entirely of two sets of overlapping steel plates bolted together in an elliptical shape. This innovation provided a smoother and more stable ride.

Specialized Designs: Specific carriage types featured distinct ironwork:

Crane-neck Phaetons: These vehicles featured a heavier construction of iron beams and hoops in the undercarriage, which allowed the front wheels a greater turning radius.

Shifting Rails: These were detachable iron pieces, often oval-shaped, that attached to the rear seat to allow a carriage top to be removed while remaining somewhat organized.

Protective Gear: Even the post boys who rode the horses (postilions) instead of a coachman on a box seat wore iron guards on their right leg and foot to protect against injury from the center pole between the horses. 

Overall, iron plates and joints were essential for both the structural integrity and the technological advancements (like improved suspension and steering) of Regency-era coaches.

Geri Walton tells us, “Coachbuilding also meant that carriage builders also needed to ensure carriages possessed joints that would not shrink or separate with use. These junctures or joints were ‘cemented by white-lead and oil, and secured by iron hoops, plates, bolts, and screws.’ Cross bars, which had grooves to accommodate the axletrees made of iron, were placed below and passed from one wheel to the another. ‘Each end of it [was] placed in the nave of the wheel, and it was upon that the wheel revolve[d].'[The Book of Trades, Or, Circle of the Useful Arts, 1837, p. 287.] – This is an excellent source for those of you who wish more detailed information.

Posted in book release, books, British history, Dragonblade Publishers, England, Georgian England, Georgian Era, hero, heroines, historical fiction, history, Living in the Regency, publishing, reading, Regency era, Regency romance, research, romance, series, suspense, travel, writing | Tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , | Comments Off on Iron Plates Used in Regency Era Coaches + the Upcoming Release of “Lyon on the Inside” from Dragonblade Publishing, Arriving 24 June 2026

Model 1813 Army Contract Pistol + the Upcoming Release of “Lyon on the Inside” from Dragonblade Publishing, Arriving 24 June 2026

Posted on June 12, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

On Wednesday, I spoke of the Pistole Modèle An IX gun. I also used the concept of an 1813 U.S. Army flintlock gun as the model for the one used against Lord Macdonald Duncan outside of the Lyon’s Den in March 1811. Yes, I do realize the U.S. gun did not go into mass production until 1813, but I have been assured by many of my “gun” friends that prototypes were available before then.

https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object/nmah_438573#:~:text=69%20caliber%20smoothbore%20flintlock%20U.S.,octagonal%20breech%20and%20no%20sight.

The Smithsonian National Museum of American History site tells us, “This .69 caliber smoothbore flintlock U.S. Model 1813 pistol was made by Simeon North under Army contract. It has an inclined brass flashpan with no fence. The larger sized hammer denotes that this pistol was made in Middletown. The barrel is nine inches long with an octagonal breech and no sight.

“The lockplate is stamped “S. NORTH/MIDLN/CON.” in two semi circles around the “U.S.” and eagle stamp. The barrel is stamped “P./US” on the left side of the breech. The right side of the breech is stamped “H.H.P” for ordnance inspector Henry H. Perkins. The left side of the stock is stamped “LS” in script for ordnance inspector Luther Sage.

“Simeon North was the first to produce mass orders of pistols for the U.S. government. His factory in Berlin, Connecticut grew so large that in 1813, he opened a larger factory in Middletown, Connecticut. This factory employed 50-70 people, had nine water wheels, three trip hammers, two lathes and boring, drilling, polishing, turning, and milling machines.

“The U.S. Model 1813 Pistol was made at the Middletown factory. These new pistols were the first firearms produced under a government contract that required standardization and interchangeability of parts. The Model 1813 is somewhat rare because production ceased in January 1816. Lieutenant Colonel Bomford from the Ordnance Office in Washington sent a list of alterations of this pistol to North. The caliber would be reduced to .54 because the recoil was too strong, the barrel, tang, and mountings were to be browned, and a sight would be added.”

References:

Flayderman, Norm. Flayderman’s Guide to Antique American Firearms…and their Values, Gun Digest Books, Iola, 2007. 9th edition.

Gardner, Robert E. Col. Small Arms Makers: A Directory of Fabricators of Firearms, Edged Weapons, Crossbows and Polearms, Crown Publishers Inc, New York: 1963, 142.

Smith, Samuel E. and Edwin W. Bitter. Historic Pistols: The American Martial Flintlock 1760-1845, Scalamandre Publications, New York: 1986, p. 150

Posted in American History, book release, British history, Dragonblade Publishers, Georgian England, Georgian Era, hero, heroines, historical fiction, history, Living in the Regency, military, mystery, Napoleonic Wars, publishing, real life tales, Regency era, Regency romance, research, suspense, war, War of 1812, writing | Tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , | Comments Off on Model 1813 Army Contract Pistol + the Upcoming Release of “Lyon on the Inside” from Dragonblade Publishing, Arriving 24 June 2026