History of “Diapers” + the Upcoming Release of “Lost in the Lyon’s Garden” from Dragonblade Publishing [Arriving 18 March 2026]

Posted on February 18, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

The convenience of throw away diapers for newborns was not a thing in the Regency era. At one time, moss or old rags were placed in the bottom of the basket or sling where the child slept. The word “diaper” originally referred to the fabric – a type of linen – and not to its use on babies. The first known mention of a diaper was in William Shakespeare’s “The Taming of the Shrew.” 

The word “diaper” comes from a pattern of repeating geometric shapes, derived from the Medieval Greek word diaspros (“thoroughly white”) and its Old French descendant diapre (“ornamental cloth”). Initially, “diaper” referred to this pattern and the expensive linen or silk fabric woven with it. By the late 19th century, this specific patterned fabric was commonly used for babies’ swaddling cloths, leading to the word “diaper” being applied to the cloth garment itself. In the United States and Canada, this usage stuck, while in Britain, the word “nappy” (a diminutive of “napkin”) became more popular. 

Diaspros evolved into the Old French word diapre, which referred to an ornamental, patterned silk cloth. 

“The Middle English word diaper originally referred to a type of cloth rather than the use thereof; “diaper” was the term for a pattern of repeated, rhombic shapes, and later came to describe white cotton or linen fabric with this pattern. According to the Oxford Dictionary, it is a piece of soft cloth or other thick material that is folded around a baby’s bottom and between its legs to absorb and hold its body waste. [ “nappy”. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.] The first cloth diapers consisted of a specific type of soft tissue sheet, cut into geometric shapes. The pattern visible in linen and other types of woven fabric was called “diaper”. This meaning of the word has been in use since the 1590s in England. By the 19th century, baby diapers were being sewn from linen, giving us the modern-day reading of the word “diaper”. [“Diaper”. eytomonline.com.] This usage stuck in the United States and Canada following the British colonization of North America, but in the United Kingdom, the word “nappy” took its place. Most sources believe nappy is a diminutive form of the word napkin, which itself was originally a diminutive.

“In the 19th century, the modern diaper began to take shape and mothers in many parts of the world used cotton material, held in place with a fastening—eventually the safety pin. Cloth diapers in the United States were first mass-produced in 1887 by Maria Allen. In the UK, diapers were made out of terry towelling, often with an inner lining made out of soft muslin.” [Diaper]

Excellent Source on the Topic: The Cloth Diaper: Its History and Dramatic Comeback

Excerpt from Chapter Nine when Benjamin learns something of tending to a baby.

Benjamin did not know how long he had watched over her, but he could not convince himself to leave. “She is a stubborn one,” his mind announced, “but stubbornness can be equally as good as it is bad for us. She is a survivor, exactly what this great nation and I will require to survive the future. Yet, her stubbornness is exactly the same emotion that will make it difficult for her to accept that God put us in each other’s paths on a rainy London day. When she admits that, we may find a way forward.”

A footman brought him some bread, cold meat, and cheese, and, after another hour of watching her sleep, his housekeeper made an appearance. Benjamin stepped into the hallway to speak to the lady and not disturb Miss Whitchurch. 

“What should I know, my lord?” Mrs. Gabriel asked. 

“In truth, I am not confident,” he admitted. “I met the lady several months back. If I am not mistaken, the child is not hers, but rather her sister’s. Whether said sister is still alive, I do not know.” He glanced back to where Miss Whitchurch rested. “Might we hire a wet nurse? I do not know how Miss Whitchurch has been tending the baby, but . . .” 

“Assuredly, I can find a wet nurse in a matter of hours, my lord, but you cannot think to permit the lady to remain in this bachelor household for longer than a few hours. It would ruin her reputation.” 

Benjamin scrubbed his face with his dry hands to clear his thinking. “She is near exhaustion, Mrs. Gabriel,” he pleaded. 

“Does she not have a home? She must have been living somewhere,” his housekeeper asked. 

“I do not know where she resides. Only where she is employed,” he explained. 

Mrs. Gabriel frowned. “Then we will start with the child’s needs. Does the lady have a fever?”

“Not that I noticed,” he admitted. 

“Let me send someone to fetch a wet nurse. We will begin at the beginning.” 

Benjamin returned to his vigil, periodically reaching a hand to calm the child when it fussed, but, with little success until, miraculously, Miss Whitchurch would also place her hand on the babe, and it would calm down again. Benjamin imagined lying next to the woman would be heavenly. 

Eventually though, the child stirred again, and this time the lady’s touch was not what it wanted. 

“Shush,” he instructed as he reached for the babe, but he could not free the child until he had claimed a pair of scissors to cut the strap that held it to her chest. 

She reached out a hand to prevent him from removing the baby, but Benjamin leaned close to speak softly in her ear. “Rest. I will tend the child. I sent for a wet nurse.” He studied her face in repose, but he knew she was not fully asleep. “What have you been feeding him?”

“Pap,” she murmured. 

“Should I also send word to Mr. Sustar that you will not be in this evening?” he asked. 

She thought to rise, but he shoved her back down. 

“Not until Thursday,” she murmured as she closed her eyes again. 

“We will talk more later. I have a house full of servants to tend to the child’s needs. Rest. We will all be here when you have recovered properly. I promise.” 

He thought she had attempted to nod her agreement, but she barely moved even an eyelash, which were dark, though not as dark as his. Carefully, he rearranged the end of the blanket over her shoulder.

“Did she appear thinner?” he wondered as he looked upon her more carefully. “Was she not eating properly?”

There was no more time to consider the lady’s wellness, for the babe had screwed up its face to emit a wail. Benjamin swung the child through the air as he moved quickly to leave the room, closing the door behind him. He caught a maid in the hallway. “Jane, I want you to sit in the room with Miss Whitchurch. Send someone to fetch me if the lady wakes.” 

“Yes, my lord.” 

He carried the now crying baby away from the room, taking the servant stairs to reach the kitchen quicker. 

“What have you there, me lord?” his cook asked when the baby’s cries filled the kitchen, causing all within to still. 

“The young one requires something to silence his alarm, Mrs. Lowe, until Mrs. Gabriel can find us a wet nurse.” 

With the sound of his voice, the child silenced somewhat. It wails having been reduced to whimpers. 

“Cannot its mother feed it?” Mrs. Lowe asked with a lift of her brows in obvious disapproval. 

“The lady I assisted today is not the child’s mother. She is, I believe, from what I learned earlier, its aunt, and before you ask, I do not yet know the whereabouts of the child’s mother,” he explained as the child caught Benjamin’s fingertip and began to suck on it. “Miss Whitchurch says she has been feeding the child pap in the mother’s absence.”

“I know what to do, my lord,” one of the maids said. “I have myself some five brothers and sisters. Be there any nappies?” she asked as she reached to relieve him of the child’s weight from the cradle of his arms. Odd as it might be to speak the words aloud, Benjamin did not wish to part with the babe. 

“There is a basket in the lady’s quarters. In the green room in the guest wing,” he provided the girl. “Jane is sitting with the lady in my absence.” 

Clara, another of the house maids said, “I will fetch it. It shall be good to have others to serve, sir.” She blushed. “No offense meant, my lord.” 

“None taken, Clara, but hurry along.” 

“May I be of assistance?” he asked Maeve, the maid who was dancing about the kitchen, cooing to the child as she poured some water in a small pan and added some flour into it before setting it on the fire. 

The girl smiled at him. “It not take long to make. Just until the flour thickens in the water to make a thin paste. The water need not be hot, though it is best to heat thoroughly and let it cool. We’ll use a spoon to feed the child. Just the smallest of beads so as not to choke him. You can add milk to the mixture if you like, but we’ll not do that today because of his fussiness, and it would take longer to make because the milk should be heated properly.

A few minutes later, Benjamin was still studying the maid’s hands as they delicately poured the mixture into a bowl, claimed a spoon to scoop a bit on its tip, blew on the mixture to cool it further, and touched the child’s lips with the spoon. The child evidently knew what to do. It opened its mouth and permitted Maeve to add drops of the pap inside. Benjamin found he was totally engrossed with the process. Nothing in his medical training spoke of those at the beginning of life, only of preventing death. 

Clara returned. “You should see these nappies,” she told the whole kitchen. “I never saw such fancy baby cloths.” She held up one of them, a piece of blue cloth and another of green, sewn together to form a perfect rectangle. 

“The lady is employed at Mr. Sustar’s drapery shop. Likely those are scraps.” Benjamin, nevertheless, was amazed at how resourceful Miss Whitchurch had been. Now, if she could recover her energies, he could stop worrying. 

“I not be assured the child will want what the wet nurse be offering,” Maeve said with a smile as the boy smacked his lips in satisfaction.

“You will explain what we have executed in the mother’s absence, will you not, Maeve?” Benjamin asked. 

“Be proud to do so, sir,” the girl said with a smile.

Posted in book excerpts, book release, British history, Dragonblade Publishers, eBooks, excerpt, family, food, Georgian England, Georgian Era, hero, heroines, historical fiction, history, Living in the Regency, mystery, publishing, Regency era, Regency romance, research, suspense, writing | Tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , | Leave a comment

Traitor Tuesday ~ Celebrating 250 Years of the United States as a Separate Nation: John Hart, a Man Who Sacrificed Everything as a Signer of the Declaration of Independence

Posted on February 17, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

John_Hart-213x300May 11, 2026, will mark nearly 250 years since John Hart’s death at the age of 68 in 1779. Hart was one of the older signers at 65 years of age when he signed the declaration. He was a land owner and the father of 13 children. 

Hart, a signer of the Declaration from New Jersey was one of the many noted Christians among the Founding Fathers. WallBuilders, a Christian based historical group, recently posted some of our legal documents signed by John Hart.

While the actual date of John Hart’s birth is unknown, biographers have put it in the year of 1713, in Hopewell Township, New Jersey. Edward Hart, John’s father, was a Justice of the Peace, a Public Assessor, and a farmer. He arrived in Hopewell about c.1710, at the age of twenty. He married Martha Furman (Firmin), on May 17, 1712, and they had five children, all raised in Hopewell, New Jersey. Not much is known of his family, except that his father helped raise a volunteer army, named “The Jersey Blues,” to assist in the French and Indian War. John became a farmer and had 13 children with his wife the former Deborah Scudder, and his reputation as “Honest John Hart” earned him the trust of those around him. As such, he helped select New Jersey’s delegates to the early Stamp Act Congress that convened in New York in 1765.

John Hart learned to read, write and do figures, but like most men of his time, had little formal schooling. He was well regarded for his common sense, was reasonably well read as proved by his understanding of the law, and showed acumen on business matters.

“John Hart began acquiring property in 1740, buying the “homestead plantation” of 193 acres in the Town of Hopewell New Jersey. In 1751 he and his brother bought a mill that they named Daniel Hart’s Mill, and in the 1770’s he acquired land making him the largest land owner in Hopewell with over 600 acres. In 1773 he bought a substantial mill enterprise in Rocky Hill with his son-in-law John Polhemus, who would later become a captain in the militia, and then in the Continental Army. On his prosperous plantation Hart had many cattle, sheep, swine, horses and fowl, and he also owned four slaves. His adult children were doing well. The original part of his home was made of stone. The original small barn is still on the property which is now privately owned. The home stands on Hart Avenue in Hopewell, New Jersey.” (The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence)

“John Hart began his public service when he was elected to the Hunterdon County New Jersey Board of Chosen Freeholders in 1750, and was elected Justice of the Peace in 1755. With this appointment he was considered a gentlemen and he was able to be called John Hart, Esquire. From 1761-1771, John Hart served on the Colonial Assembly, representing Hunterdon, Morris and Sussex counties. It was there that he first met Abraham Clark, who would later become a fellow signer of the Declaration of Independence. He was appointed to the Court of Common Pleas in 1768. By 1774, he was elected to a committee to ‘elect and appoint Delegates to the First Continental Congress, and to protest the Tea Act.’ In 1775 he was elected to the New Jersey Committee of Correspondence, which communicated and touched base with the other colonies, and served on the Committee of Safety ‘to act in the public welfare of the colony in the recess of the Congress.’ In 1776 he was elected to the New Jersey Provincial congress, and in the same year he was designated to sign the new  ‘Bill of Credit Notes,’ money issued by the State of New Jersey. Hart signed each note himself for a total of 25,000. Hart was often called ‘Honest John.’

“In June 1776 he was elected as one of five New Jersey delegates to the Second Continental Congress with authorization to vote for independence. His fellow delegates and future signers were Abraham Clark, Francis Hopkinson, Richard Stockton and John Witherspoon. When John Hart arrived in Philadelphia, in June 1776 to attend the Congress, he strongly supported the idea of Independence. John Hart was the thirteenth delegate to put his signature on the historic document. He was willing to pledge his life his fortune, and his sacred honor in doing so.

“In August of 1776 New Jersey elected a General Assembly under their new state constitution. Hart was elected to that body, and was selected to be Speaker. He soon returned home to attend to family matters. Sadly, his wife Deborah died on October 8, 1776, with John at her side.

“In December of 1776, as Washington’s army retreated across New Jersey, the British and Hessians ravaged the Hopewell area. Hart’s home and property suffered severe damage, two young children fled to the homes of relatives and Hart himself took refuge wherever he could in the woods, hiding in caves and in the Sourwood mountains. When the British began their withdrawal from the area after the American victories at Trenton and Princeton, Hart returned to his home. John Hart was re-elected twice as Speaker of the Assembly and served until November 7, 1778.” (DSDI)

hartsig30

John Hart’s Signature, 20 February 1776 http://www.barefootsworld. net/johnhart.html

John Hart was himself elected to the Continental Congress where, somewhere near the age of 60, he voted for the Declaration of Independence with “unusual zeal.” He fully understood the personal cost entailed by affixing his name to the Declaration of Independence, and quickly became a target of the British for signing that document.

In June 1778, John Hart invited the American army to camp at his farm. Washington accepted his offer, and 12,000 men camped in John Hart’s field during the growing season, and refreshed themselves with the cool water that flowed on the property. The troops left on the 24th of June, and four days later fought and won the Battle of Monmouth.

Chased from his dying wife’s bedside and hunted by the enemy, he wandered about the countryside to avoid discovery by the British, rarely sleeping in the same place two nights in a row. In fact, he even had to sleep in the “resting place of a large dog” to avoid detection by a nearby British patrol. Several times, he was forced to flee as fast as he could to “save his neck” as it had been “marked for vengeance” by the British.

John was finally able to return to his destroyed home in 1777 and gathered his children together. He began to rebuild his farm and property, but never fully recovered his health from the physical hardships of being forced from his home and being exposed to the cold and living outdoors for the year. The “sorrow, humiliation, and suffering, wearing out of his bodily strength, hasten[ed] the approach of decrepitude and death.”  (John Sanderson, Sanderson’s Biography of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence, Robert T. Conrad, editor (Philadelphia: Thomas, Cowperthwaith & Co., 1848), p. 255.)

hartmonument

John Hart Monument in 1st Baptist Courtyard, Hopewell, Mercer Co., New Jersey http://www.barefootsworld.net /johnhart.html

John did not see the fulfillment of his wish of freedom and independence for Americans, for he died before the end of the Revolutionary War. He suffered for long periods with kidney stones and passed from them on May 11, 1779, at the age of 66. 

Sources:

John Hart  Bare Foot World

John Hart   The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence

John Hart  Wallbuilders 

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Foundling Hospitals in the Regency Era + the Upcoming Release of “Lost in the Lyon’s Garden” from Dragonblade Publishing (Arriving 18 March 2026)

Posted on February 16, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

The Foundling Hospital in London dates from the 1740s founded by Thomas Coram. Several aristocratic ladies sponsored his initial proposal, and famous artists contributed works to sell to raise funds. The hospital took in orphans and foundlings, so not just orphans, but children whose parents couldn’t keep them, usually with tokens to help identify the children, in the event the parents could resume care.

The Coram Museum tells us: “When he returned to England with his American wife, Eunice, he was shocked to discover destitute and dying children on London’s streets. He decided to petition the king for a charter to create a foundling hospital supported by subscriptions to protect these children. But at first he found it impossible to gain the backing of anyone influential enough, and there was opposition to the idea. This was due of social attitudes to illegitimacy and fear that providing for the babies of unmarried mother would encourage immorality, as well as a general attitude that it was not helpful to support ‘improvident’ parents unable to care for their children.

“His lack of social graces, which offended some of the influential upper class, didn’t help. He once complained in a letter that he might as well have asked them to “putt down their breeches and present their backsides to the King and Queen”.

“Undaunted, and inspired by the role of French women in caring for foundlings in Paris, Thomas Coram decided to ask English noblewomen (known as the ’21 Ladies of Quality and Distinction’) to lend weight to his petition and gain the interest of influential men along the way. Ten years later, King George II signed the Foundling Hospital charter. In a letter to Selina, Countess of Huntingdon, 1739, who was among those who signed Thomas Coram’s Ladies Petition to King George II, he wrote:

“After seventeen years and a half ’s contrivance, labour and fatigue I have obtained a charter for establishing a hospital for […] deserted young children.”

“The first meeting of the governors of the Foundling Hospital took place at Somerset House. Thomas Coram, by then aged 70, made a moving speech to the Duke of Bedford, the Hospital’s new President:

“My Lord, Duke of Bedford,

It is with inexpressible pleasure I now present your grace, at the head of this noble and honourable corporation, with his Majesty’s royal charter, for establishing an Hospital for exposed children, free of all expense, through the assistance of some compassionate great ladies and other good persons.

I can, my lord, sincerely aver, that nothing would have induced me to embark in a design so full of difficulties and discouragements, but a zeal for the service of his Majesty, in preserving the lives of great numbers of his innocent subjects.

The long and melancholy experience of this nation has too demonstrably shewn, with what barbarity tender infants have been exposed and destroyed for want of proper means of preventing the disgrace, and succouring the necessities of their parents.

The charter will disclose the extensive nature and end of this Charity, in much stronger terms than I can possibly pretend to describe them, so that I have only to thank your Grace and many other noble personages, for all that favourable protection which hath given life and sprit to my endeavours.”*

“On the evening of March 25, 1741, at a temporary site, the Foundling Hospital opened its doors.”

The London Foundling Hospital opened in 1741. They put an advertisement in the paper the the would admit foundlings “no questioned asked” and they had 30 admission the first NIGHT they were open.

So many women brought babies that they had to institute a lottery system. By 1749 Admission Day was a big event, with the fashionable wealthy paying an entry fee to come and watch the mothers drawing black or white balls from the lottery, and giving up their children — many times with great weeping — if they ‘won’ the lottery. 

Those interested may find excellent information in Orphans of Empire from Helen Berry.

“At the moment of separation, mothers left tokens with their babies, usually an everyday item such as a key, a charm, or button, a broken coin, or even a hazelnut, so that they could identify their chid should thy ever be in a position to come and reclaim them … the use of identifying tokens was a well-known practice adopted by the Foundling Hospital, and had deep history rooted in the ancient world and in Catholic orphanages across Europe  … How we can understand and interpret what these tokens meant to the mothers who surrendered their babies, never to see them again, is fraught with emotion (both theirs and our own) and difficulties in reaching across over 250 years of separation between them and us.”

The book says that the Royal Hospital adopted the Catholic model of foundling hospitals from the Continent — including the commitment to the mothers to document and track children so they could be reclaimed if family finances improved  —  was adopted from the Order of the Hospitalers of the Holy Spirit, a religious order that founded hundreds of foundling hospitals around Europe beginning in the 11th century. 

Berry also says that caring for orphans became a “fashionable cause” in the mid-18th century — especially after the publication of Tom Jones, who rehabilitated orphans in the public mind and gave them a plucky, kindhearted orphan for whom to root.

Though some people believe that Henry Fielding, the author of Tom Jones, had also once lived in a foundling hospital, but such was not true. His family’s financial struggles and his awareness of London’s poor, however, did influence his work. While Fielding was not a foundling, he had a close connection to the Foundling Hospital, London’s first home for abandoned children. His friend, the artist William Hogarth, was a strong supporter of the institution. It is likely that discussions with Hogarth and his own observations of poverty helped inspire Fielding to write a story centered on the fate of an abandoned baby. 

The chapel built in 1774 was also a very important aspect of the hospital. They had an annual performance of Handel’s Messiah and other concerts. Wealthy patrons came there for these concerts. The concerts at the chapel were “an important venue for generating donations.”

Posted in book release, British history, buildings and structures, Dragonblade Publishers, eBooks, England, family, Georgian England, Georgian Era, hero, heroines, historical fiction, history, laws of the land, Living in the Regency, medicine, mystery, publishing, real life tales, Regency romance, research, suspense, writing | Tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , | Leave a comment

Pap, Gruel, and Panada – Feeding Infants in the Regency Era + the Upcoming Release of “Lost in the Lyon’s Garden” from Dragonblade Publishing [Arriving 18 March 2026]

Posted on February 13, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

In Lost in the Lyon’s Garden, the heroine, Miss Victoria Whitchurch is charged with the care of her sister’s child, when Miss Cassandra goes missing. Obviously, Victoria must quickly learn what to feed the newborn. What exactly is pap? Were there other possibilities? Victoria is not rich enough for a wet nurse.

The National Library of Medicine tells us, “The literature on the use of animal milk for infant feeding begins with Soranus in the 2nd century CE. Literature evidence from the very first printed books in the 15th century proves that physicians, surgeons, midwives, and the laity were aware of the opportunities and risks of artificial infant feeding. Most 17th to 19th century books on infant care contained detailed recipes for one or several of the following infant foods: pap, a semisolid food made of flour or bread crumbs cooked in water with or without milk; gruel, a thin porridge resulting from boiling cereal in water or milk, and panada, a preparation of various cereals or bread cooked in broth. During the 18th century, the published opinion on artificial feeding evolved from health concerns to a moral ideology. This view ignored the social and economic pressures which forced many mothers to forego or shorten breast-feeding. Bottle-feeding has been common practice throughout history.”

Pap can be food for children, but the term can refer to different dishes, from a historically used semisolid infant food made from flour or bread crumbs to a nutritious maize-based porridge common in Southern Africa, such as mieliepap. A more modern, therapeutic version called Parma Pap is a high-energy, micronutrient-rich food designed to treat malnutrition in children. 

Infant Feeding in History tells us, “Pap generally consisted of animal milk or water thickened with bread (or some kind of cereal) with some additives for palatability – perhaps honey, then later – sugar. It was a popular complement to or substitute for human breast milk, notably in the 18th century. Panada was similar and generally referred to cereals cooked in broth  with some additives to flavour the food. Valerie A Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies: A History of Infant Feeding, (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1986) says, “… a decline in the use of dairy produce in pap over the course of the 17th century, so that by the 18th century  pap sometimes contained no dairy produce at all. If this was the sole food upon which infants were fed there could be catastrophic results. There was insufficient protein, calcium, vitamins (A and D) and fats to enable them to thrive.”

Originally, I thought to give the child honey water. However, I did not want the public to scream at me for my choice, though what we know in 2025 was not what those in 1812 would have known. Therefore, I went with the pap, though I knew it, too, was not the best for the child. WebMD tells us, “Giving honey to babies under 12 months has been associated with a rare, but serious, condition called infant botulism. Infant botulism is caused by exposure to the spores of a bacterium. Clostridium botulinum bacteria spores can grow and multiply in your baby’s intestines. This produces a dangerous toxin that causes infant botulism.”

Fortunately, my hero of the tale steps in and hires a wet nurse for the boy to prevent any many crisis while the hero and heroine look for the child’s mother.

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“Public” Education in the Regency Era + the Upcoming Release of “Lost in the Lyon’s Garden” from Dragonblade Publishing [Arriving 18 March 2026]

Posted on February 11, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

Young boys of the wealthy, generally, received a tutor about the same time as he received a valet to take over his care. Early curriculums included Latin, French mathematics, science, geography, and history. Later, a more intense study of literature and mathematics was included, along with philosophy and, perhaps, Greek. To all of the above were added the necessary social graces required of a young gentleman. Sporting activities such as hunting and riding were also part of his education. Fencing and boxing were not required, but often part of his education. He might also study music or art.

The only free schools available were run by government-funded organizations or philanthropic or religious groups. Those of us who know something of Jane Austen’s life know that Cassandra and Jane attended such a school in Oxford. Jane reportedly despised the school and returned home after only a year.

Such a school was where the heroine Jane Eyre attended. In Pride and Prejudice, we learn something of Caroline Bingley’s attitude in this description of her schooling: “They were in fact very fine ladies; not deficient in good-humour when they were pleased, nor in the power of being agreeable where they chose it, but proud and conceited. They were rather handsome, had been educated in one of the first private seminaries in town, had a fortune of twenty thousand pounds, were in the habit of spending more than they ought, and of associating with people of rank, and were therefore in every respect entitled to think well of themselves, and meanly of others. They were of a respectable family in the north of England; a circumstance more deeply impressed on their memories than that their brother’s fortune and their own had been acquired by trade.”

In Lost in the Lyon’s Garden, we learn that the heroine, Miss Victoria Whitchurch, has spent the last few years, first as a student and then as a teacher at an all-girls school in Bath. This was a boarding school, though there were assuredly “day” students, who returned home each evening.

Boys also attended private schools, though they were referred to as “public schools.” Schools such as Eton, Winchester, Rugby, Shewsbury, Westminster, Charterhouse, and Harrow fit into this classification. Twelve was generally the age of first attending, but some boys were there at ages 9 or 10, depending upon their circumstances. “Charity” cases were accepted, but those boys would normally have a harder row to hoe because the fact their parents could not pay for their education was common knowledge among the staff and the students. A number of scholarships were available for those with high academic potential, but, again, the child’s standing would be well known by one and all.

Let us break the education system down in simpler terms:

For Boys

  • “Public Schools”: Wealthy boys were often sent to “public schools,” which are now called private schools. 
  • Examples: Elite schools included Eton, Harrow, Winchester, Westminster, Rugby, Charterhouse, and Shrewsbury. 
  • Purpose: The primary goal was to prepare boys for university and entry into the aristocracy or gentry. 
  • Daily Life: School days were highly regimented but offered little direct supervision, with boys often living in boarding houses overseen by a “Dame”. 

For Girls 

  • Boarding Schools: Wealthier girls also attended boarding schools, with examples like the one attended by Jane Austen at Reading Abbey Girls’ School.
  • Home Education: Many girls from wealthy families were educated at home by governesses and tutors, a common alternative to boarding school.
  • Purpose: Education for girls focused on accomplishments suitable for managing a household, social skills, and preparation for marriage and family life.

General Education

  • Varied by Class: Education was highly dependent on social class and family finances, with no universal public school system in place. 
  • Curriculum: The curriculum for both boys and girls differed significantly from modern education, focusing on different subjects and skill sets. 
  • Alternative: Tutors: Wealthier children who did not attend boarding school often received education from private tutors. 

Other Sources:

Jane Austen’s World

Random Bits of Fascination

Regency Fiction Writers

Posted in aristocracy, book release, British history, customs and tradiitons, Dragonblade Publishers, eBooks, education, Georgian England, Georgian Era, hero, heroines, historical fiction, history, Jane Austen, Living in the Regency, mystery, Pride and Prejudice, publishing, Regency era, Regency romance, research, suspense | Tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , | Leave a comment

Traitor Tuesday ~ Celebrating 250 Years of the United States as a Separate Nation: John Knox Witherspoon, Signer of the Declaration of Independence and Author of a Colonial Blockbuster

Posted on February 10, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

  John Witherspoon was a 53 years old when he signed the Declaration of Independence. A minister, twice married and the father of 12, Witherspoon lived to age 71.

John Knox Witherspoon was a Scottish-born clergyman, who signed the Declaration of Independence. In fact, he was the only clergyman to do so. He was born 5 February 1722 or 1723 (depending on whether one is looking at the Julian or Gregorian calendar). 

“His father, James, was the minister of Yester Parish. He served on committees in the General Assembly and was the royal chaplain to the Lord High Commissioner. Anna [his mother] came from a long line of clergymen that extended back to John Knox. She had six children. One of her sons was lost in the West Indies. She had a grandchild who was the tutor to Sir Walter Scott.

“Anna was John’s first teacher. She taught him to read and by the age of four, he could read from the Bible and would eventually be able to recite most of the New Testament. When John was 13 years old, based on his studies in English, the classics and mathematics, Latin Greek and French, he was sent off to university at Edinburgh where he enrolled 1 November 1735. In the next three years, he completed the four year’s work for a Master of Arts degree (there is no record of a Bachelor’s degree) and toward the end of 1738 he petitioned to publish his thesis. Just after his sixteenth birthday, February, 1739, he was awarded his Master of Arts with a thesis, in Latin, De Mentis Immortalitate, signed Johannes Wederspan (It was common practice at this time to use your Latinized name on academic documents). By the time he was 20, John had obtained his Doctor of Theology and a license to preach. He received his first parish, Beith, 11 April 1745. He married Elizabeth Montgomery, 2 September 1748. Elizabeth bore 9 children, 5 of whom survived to adulthood and made the journey to North America. An excellent video of this period of John’s life is available for preview or purchase at Young Witherspoon.

“John was recruited by the trustees of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), Princeton, NJ to become the President of the College after the death of Dr. Samuel Finley, its fifth president. Benjamin Rush and Richard Stockton (later Signers of the Declaration of Independence) among others were sent to Scotland to recruit John for the position. Many of the letters between John and the various Princeton principals are contained in the **Butterfield book referenced at the end of this (paragraph). [**Butterfield, L. H., John Witherspoon Comes to America, (Princeton University Library, Princeton, New Jersey, 1953]

John Witherspoon was the only Declaration signer to be a college ... www.examiner.com

John Witherspoon was the only Declaration signer to be a college …
http://www.examiner.com

“On 18 May 1768, John and his family sailed for Philadelphia on the brigantine Peggy, which arrived in August. The College of New Jersey bloomed under his direction. He grew the endowment fund, instituted curricular changes, and patched up a major schism in the Presbyterian church. By 1770 the College students were openly advocating in favor of the patriot cause. John, in a commencement address advocated resistance to the Crown. In 1774-1775 he represented his county in the New Jersey provincial assembly, successfully agitated for the removal and imprisonment of the Royal Governor and received an appointment to the Continental Congress. On July 2, 1776, in response to a delegate who opposed ratification of the Declaration by saying ‘we are not ripe for revolution,’ John replied, ‘Not ripe sir, we are not only ripe for the measure but in danger of rotting for the want of it.’ In 1776, when the war entered into New Jersey territory, he closed the College of New Jersey. The British occupied the College, burned its library and in general left things a mess. Many of John’s papers were burned or destroyed at this time. The next year, James, one of John’s sons, lost his life at the Battle of Germantown, PA.” (The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence)

Colonial Hall provides us with an unusual tidbit regarding Witherspoon’s life. “Immediately on leaving the university, he was invited to become the minister of Yester, as colleague with his father, with the right of succeeding to the charge. He chose, rather, however, to accept an invitation from the parish of Beith, in the west of Scotland, and here he was ordained and settled, by the unanimous consent of his congregation.

“Soon after his settlement at Beith, a circumstance occurred of too interesting a nature to be omitted. On the 17th of January, 1746, was fought the battle of Falkirk. Of this battle, Dr. Witherspoon and several others were spectators. Unfortunately, they were taken prisoners by the rebels, and shut up in close confinement in the castle of Doune. In the same room in which he was confined, were two cells, in one of which were five members of a military company from Edinburgh, who had also been taken prisoners, and two citizens of Aberdeen, who had been threatened to be hanged as spies. In the other cell were several others who had been made prisoners, under circumstances similar to those of Dr. Witherspoon.

“During the night which followed their imprisonment, the thoughts of the prisoners, who were able to communicate with one another, were turned on the best means of making their escape. The room where they were confined was the highest part of the castle, not far from the battlements. which were seventy feet high. It was proposed to form a rope of some blankets which they had purchased, and by means of this to descend from the battlements to the ground.

“A rope was accordingly made, in the best manner they were able, and about one o’clock in the morning they commenced descending upon it. Four reached the ground in safety. Just as the fifth touched the ground the rope broke, about twenty feet above. This unfortunate occurrence was communicated to those who remained on the battlements, and warning was given to them not to attempt the hazardous descent. In disregard, however, of the advice, the next one whose turn it was to descend, immediately went down the rope. On reaching the end of it, his companions below perceiving him determined to let go his hold, put themselves in a posture to break his fall. They succeeded, however, only in part. The poor fellow was seriously injured, having one of his ankles dislocated, and several ribs broken. His companions, however, succeeded in conveying him to a village on the borders of the sea, whence he was taken, by means of a boat, to a sloop of war lying in the harbor.

“The other volunteer, and Dr. Witherspoon, were left behind. The volunteer now drew the rope up, and to the end of it attached several blankets. Having made it sufficiently long, be again let it down and began his descent. He reached the place where the rope was originally broken, in safety ; but the blankets, which he had attached to it, being too large for him to span, like his predecessor, he fell, and was so much wounded, that be afterwards died. The fate of these unhappy men induced Dr. Witherspoon to relinquish the hope of escape in this way, and to wait for a safer mode of liberation.”

From Adherents.com and “The Religious Affiliation of John Witherspoon,” we learn, “Witherspoon stayed in Congress until 1782. His main committee assignments dealt with military and foreign affairs. He also participated in the debates on the Articles of Confederation, aided in setting up the executive departments, and argued for financial stability. Meantime, in 1779, he had moved from the President’s House at Princeton to Tusculum, a country home he had earlier built nearby. He left the Rev. Samuel S. Smith, his son-in-law and the college vice president, in charge of the nearly defunct institution.

“Witherspoon devoted most of his effort during the postwar years to rebuilding the college, which never fully recovered its prewar prosperity during his lifetime. In addition, during the years 1783-89 he sat for two terms in the State legislature, attended the New Jersey (1787) convention that ratified the Federal Constitution, participated in the reorganization of the Presbyterian Church, and moderated its first general assembly (1789). In 1791, at the age of 68, Witherspoon took a second wife, a 24-year-old widow, who bore him two daughters. Blind his last 2 years, he died in 1794, aged 71, at Tusculum. His remains rest in the Presidents’ Lot at Princeton Cemetery.” (Adherents)

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Educating Young Males in Regency England + the Upcoming Release of “Lost in the Lyon’s Garden” from Dragonblade Publishing (Arriving 18 March 2026)

Posted on February 9, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

In book 2 of this series, we learn that Alexander Dutton was greatly behind when he came in his studies when he came to live with Lord Macdonald Duncan. Unlike three of the other young men taken in by Duncan, Alexander’s education was greatly lacking. In upper class families, a governess taught both the young boys and the young girls, that is, until the boys would go off to school. In lower class families, local churches provided some sort of education, again for the boys. They were taught English, their sums, and, perhaps a bit of literature and even Latin.

“Eventually, these students’ schools turned into boarding schools to help educate orphans or sons of poor freemen (A freeman had the rights of a citizen but were often servants of some sort who made very little money). However more often than not, young boys typically dropped schooling to help run the family business or take on a job to have more money in the family. Josiah Wedgwood was an example of this. While he was pulled out of school, he still was able to be successful during this time.

“The difference between boys’ and girls’ education at this age was that this is typically the age were schooling of girls stopped. While there were some boarding schools those eventually started to close down due to lack of funding and low enrollment. Girls hardly ever went somewhere to get educated. If they were upper-class they were able to work at home with the governess. If not,working-class girls often learned housework and started working in households with their mothers.” [Male Education in Regency England]

In this series, Lord Macdonald Duncan sees to the education and training of each of the five boys he takes into his house to raise them to their majority, where they might claim their earldoms. The hero of book 4, one Lord Benjamin Thompson, has always desired to be a surgeon. So Duncan sent Benjamin to study in Edinburgh.

During the Regency era, Edinburgh was renowned as a leading center for medical education, offering a more progressive and practical approach than its English counterparts. For an aspiring surgeon, the city provided access to prestigious institutions, renowned lecturers, and a strong culture of anatomical and surgical study. 

Institutional advantages of Edinburgh

  • Pioneering medical school: The University of Edinburgh’s medical school, founded in 1726, was internationally respected. Unlike Oxford or Cambridge, it offered a comprehensive curriculum that integrated clinical experience with lectures, giving students a more practical foundation.
  • Royal Colleges: The city was home to the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh and the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, influential bodies that oversaw standards and examinations.
  • Clinical practice at the Royal Infirmary: The Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, founded in 1729, was a key teaching hospital. It was closely tied to the university and was one of the first hospitals to provide clinical teaching, allowing students to “walk the wards” and observe patients firsthand.
  • “Extramural” private schools: In addition to the university, a robust system of private “extramural” lecturers and schools offered specialized courses. Students often combined these with university lectures to create their own individualized program of study. 

The path to becoming a surgeon

Unlike physicians, who were classically educated gentlemen, surgeons were considered a trade. The path to becoming a surgeon combined hands-on training with academic lectures. 

The Regency surgical education process:

  1. Apprenticeship: A student began with an apprenticeship to an established surgeon. During this time, they learned practical skills and were expected to perform menial tasks, such as cleaning the examining room.
  2. University lectures: Apprentices supplemented their training by attending courses at the university and extramural schools. These lectures covered subjects like anatomy, chemistry, and botany, and were delivered in English, making them accessible to a wider student body.
  3. Anatomy and dissection: Edinburgh was a hub for the study of anatomy, which was vital for surgeons. As legal cadavers were scarce, a black market supplied bodies for dissection. Students would attend public and private anatomical theaters to observe and participate in dissections.
  4. “Walking the wards”: At the Royal Infirmary, students gained clinical experience by observing procedures and patient care.
  5. Licensing: After their apprenticeship and studies, students could sit for an examination administered by the Royal College of Surgeons to gain their license. 

Challenges and reputation

  • Lack of social status: While Edinburgh’s medical training was superior, a surgeon’s social standing remained below that of a physician. A surgeon was expected to “dirty his hands” and would be addressed as “Mr.” rather than “Dr.”.
  • Anatomical supplies: The need for cadavers sometimes led to illicit activities. Most notoriously, the city’s black market in corpses gave rise to the serial killers Burke and Hare, who murdered people to sell their bodies to anatomists.
  • The rise of scientific surgery: During the Regency and early 19th century, surgeons in Edinburgh began transitioning from practical tradesmen to scientifically-minded professionals. Later in the century, famous Edinburgh surgeons like Joseph Lister would pioneer antiseptic surgery, building on the city’s legacy. 

For a character in the Regency, choosing Edinburgh for surgical training would have demonstrated a serious, progressive, and practical mindset, willing to undergo rigorous training in the field’s most advanced center, despite the profession’s social limitations. This is what I want the reader to know of Lord Benjamin Thompson’s characterization in the Lost in the Lyon’s Garden. You will hear Lord Duncan refer to Thompson’s “beautiful brain” more than one time in reading the tale.

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Rebuilding or Refurbishing a House in Regency England + the Upcoming Release of “Lost in the Lyon’s Garden” from Dragonblade Publishing (Arriving 18 March 2026)

Posted on February 6, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

The hero of Lost in the Lyon’s Garden was raised, until about the age of ten, by his father, a vicar on his uncle’s estate (now his estate). Lord Benjamin Thompson lives quite simply, as compared to his brothers and most of society. Thompson lives in a terrace house in Cheapside. He owns the whole street of houses and many more in the area. He invests in properties about London, but especially in Cheapside, for he views a thriving populace there.

What would it cost Lord Thompson to renovate a house in London? In truth, there is very little information on what such renovations might cost during the Regency. Yet, why should not Mr. Gardiner in Austen’s Pride and Prejudice be ashamed of where he lives? [Mr. Gardiner and his wife live on Gracechurch Street in the Cheapside district of London. Gracechurch Street was a respectable, but unfashionable area for the gentry, though it was a busy commercial street near London’s thriving population. Gardiner’s home was a respectable address near London’s major commercial and financial center, with Mr. Gardiner having a successful trade and managing his warehouses.] 

As far as information on the cost of renovations, there is a good bit on the houses in Mayfair, which is where we will start, with the understanding Cheapside would be less expensive.

My references are for Brunswick Square in Brighton in the 1820’s. For a wealth of info on this, please look at Regency Town House info here: https://www.rth.org.uk/building-regency-houses

Also, if you can find this book, it is a goldmine on building homes, squares, churches and more in Brighton from approx. 1800 thru Late Victorian period. I have used the book to “build” and “furnish” many houses in Brighton and other places in a few of my novels.

Antam and Morice, BRIGHTON AND HOVE. Yale University Press, 2008.

A Regency town house in Brighton, meaning a new townhouse in the Square (without drapes, chandeliers, paint to order, plastering etc.) cost approximately 3000 pounds. Of course, a very good guide would be if you subscribe to BRITISH NEWSPAPERS where one can find houses for sale, land, others at auction with and without furnishings and cost of drapers, cabinet makers, etc.

Here is an article you can read online from the Economic History Review: “How Much did the English Country House Cost to Build, 1660-1880?”

https://www.jstor.org/stable/2599140?seq=1

This website has some of that kind of  information:

https://www.british-history.ac.uk/rchme/stamford/lxiv-lxix

I have a note that might apply, taken from The Georgian London Town House: Building, Collecting and Display: “In 1805, 2nd Earl of Grosvenor bought Gloucester House in Upper Grosvenor Street for £20,000. Alterations to the interior cost him £17,000 and the new furniture £7,000. 

So the year is a little off, and this is a town house vs. a country house, but it was larger than the “standard” town house, and the decorations were some of the most impressive/ expensive in London at the time. So it will depend on how large and fancy you want your country house to be. I would find £3,000 plausible for a certain level of remodel, but if it is huge and it is going to be completely redone to the latest fashion, it seems like the number would be higher. 

Does the roof need replacing or repairing? That is one of the most expensive parts of re-doing a house. A gentleman might also want to include some indoor plumbing and restore the well and the ice house. £3000 is too little if any of these things has to be done. If the place is just to be cleaned and painted and a window or two replaced, £300o  would cover it and new mattresses for the beds.

All that being said, the cost to renovate a house in Regency-era London would vary widely based on the scale of the “improvements” and the household’s income, but could easily run into thousands of pounds for extensive work. For example, the cost of adding fashionable updates to a townhouse on Brook Street in 1822–1824 came to £3,384. 

A general renovation budget is nearly impossible to define precisely due to differences in property size, building materials, and the tradesmen employed. However, historical records offer insights into what different improvements might cost. 

Examples of renovation costs …

Historical accounts show the variety and scale of expenditures on building projects during the Regency era (roughly 1811 to 1820).

  • Royal expenditure: As a trendsetter, the Prince Regent’s lavish renovations set an extravagant precedent. The expansion of Windsor Castle eventually cost over £1 million.
  • Fashionable townhouse improvements: In 1822–1824, renovations on a London townhouse at 88 Brook Street included adding an ionic porch, ironwork, and lengthening windows. These alterations cost £3,384, a significant sum.
  • Country house construction: While not a renovation, the construction of Blenheim Palace in the early 1700s ballooned from an estimated £40,000 to £300,000, demonstrating how building projects could escalate. 

Factors influencing renovation costs …

  • Scale of work: Renovating a property could mean anything from simple decorating to a full-scale rebuilding of the structure.
  • Labor: While the wages of an individual worker were low (a master craftsman might earn 1 to 2 guineas per week), the total labor cost for a major renovation would be substantial. Historical accounts indicate that 80% of a builder’s gross income went to paying wages.
  • Architectural trends: The Regency was a time of fashionable “improvements,” with architectural style shifting towards a refined classicism. Following these trends would have increased costs. Renovations could include:
    • Adding iron balconies
    • Lengthening windows
    • Installing a classical portico
  • Building materials: A builder in Brighton in 1825 paid 4 shillings 8 pence per cubic foot for straight Memel fir (a type of timber) and 10 shillings 6 pence per cubic foot for carved English oak. Costs for raw materials were about 10–20% of a builder’s gross income.
  • Contingencies: As with any large-scale project, unforeseen issues like structural problems could significantly increase the final cost. Professionals like a quantity surveyor would have been consulted for large projects to help assess potential issues. 

The cost in context …

To understand what a renovation might cost, it helps to compare the expenses to the era’s annual income.

  • A prosperous gentleman might have an income of £1,000 a year, while a very wealthy one could have £4,000–£5,000 a year.
  • A renovation costing several thousand pounds was well within the means of the very rich, but it would have been a prohibitive expenditure for the average person. 

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What Type of Education Must a Clergyman in the Regency Era Have + the Upcoming Release of “Lost in the Lyon’s Garden” (Arriving 18 March 2026)

Posted on February 4, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

In Lost in the Lyon’s Garden, both the hero’s and the heroine’s father are vicars, so it seemed appropriate to address what that meant.

To become a clergyman in the Regency era, one typically needed to attend a public school, followed by a university degree from Oxford or Cambridge. After completing their degree, candidates presented a testimonial to a bishop and passed an examination to prove their fitness for ordination at the age of 24. While the education was not specifically theological, a single class in theology was common, and university attendees also focused on making important social connections that would lead to a parish “living”. “It’s true that clergy of the established, Anglican church were treated as ‘honorary gentlemen’. Most would have attended Oxford or Cambridge universities. Quite a few were younger sons or cousins of landed gentry families. However, this was far from being universal and certainly did not apply to the many Dissenting Ministers, who served in non-conformist chapels. Nor should prosperity be assumed. There were three main categories of Anglican clergy. In a rough descending order of income, these were rectors, vicars and curates. Dissenting Ministers make up a confusing category of their own. [Pen and Pension]

Early Education:

Boys from the gentry and middle classes were educated at public schools or private preparatory schools. Some clergymen (as it was with Jane Austen’s father) ran small boarding schools in the countryside to supplement their income, often taking in a few boarders or day students.  

University Education:

A college degree from Oxford or Cambridge was a requirement for ordination in the Church of England. A university education was not specific to theology, but, rather, a general training for a professional career.  Prospective clergy followed the same syllabus as other undergraduates, though some divinity lectures were available. 

The Path to Ordination:

A candidate must be at least 24 years old to be ordained. After university, the candidate would present a testimonial to the bishop, attesting to his moral fitness. The bishop would then examine the candidate on his knowledge of Latin, scripture, and church doctrine. 

Finding a Parish “Living”:

If a position was not immediately available, a newly ordained man might serve as a curate, which was a poorly paid assistant, until he found a parish to take on. 

A clergyman secured a position, or “living,” where they could perform the duties of the church. Therefore, it is more than obvious why attending University, it was important to build connections with people who had livings to offer. A wealthy patron or a position obtained through connections could provide the funds for a degree. 


“Rectors ‘held’ the living, in the sense that they could retain it for life, had a legal right to the associated income and could not be forced out, save on the most serious disciplinary grounds. They were not deputies, like vicars, who might in theory be dismissed by the rector for whom they deputised. The rector could also lay claim to all the income from the living; the vicar only the part of it allowed him by the rector. The term ‘curate’ can be confusing and difficult to define precisely. Etymologically, it means an ordained person responsible for the ‘cure of souls’ in a parish — i.e. the parish priest. In that sense, the term applied equally to rectors (unless lay ones) and vicars. In practice, it had come to mean a salaried assistant, deputy or locum: i.e. someone paid a stipend or salary directly by the rector/vicar, and not having a right to any part of the tithes. Since the Anglican Church was, and is, full of oddities, some parishes were served by ‘Perpetual Curates’, in full charge and deputy to no one, but still paid a stipend, rather than having a right to any of the tithe. This stipend was usually funded by an endowment or charitable body. However, by later Victorian times, the term fell out of general use and they were classed as vicars. [Pen and Pension]

Other Sources:

Greater and Lesser Tithes and Who Received Them

Male Education in Regency England

Vicars and Rectors and Livings, a Guest Post from Elaine Owen

What Exactly Did It Mean for A Clergyman to Have a “Living” Bestowed Upon Him During the Regency Period?

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Traitor Tuesday ~ Celebrating 250 Years of the United States as a Separate Nation: Abraham Clark, Signer of the Declaration of Independence and “The Poor Man’s Counselor”

Posted on February 3, 2026 by Regina Jeffers

Clark was both a lawyer and surveyor by trade. He was 50 years old when he signed the Declaration of Independence. Married twice, he was the father of 16 children in total. He lived to age 92, seeing America again go against the British in the War of 1812. He died in 1820.

Abraham Clark’s great-grandfather, Richard Clark, emigrated from England to Barbados in 1634, moving to Southampton, Long Island in the 1650s, and later took part in the Indian War. For many years, Richard was a shipbuilder and planter. Later he moved his wife and children to Elizabethtown, New Jersey, where the Clarks became deeply immersed in public service.

clarkAbraham’s father and mother were Thomas Clark and Hannah Winans, whose family immigrated from Holland and were part of the founding of Elizabethtown. From Signers of the Declaration of Independence: Short Biographies, we learn, “Abraham Clark was born into the life of a farmer at what is now Elizabeth, New Jersey. His father saw an aptitude for mathematics and felt that he was too frail for the farm life and so young Abraham was tutored in mathematics and surveying. He continued his own study of the Law while working as a surveyor. He later practiced as an attorney and in this role is said to have been quite popular because of his habit of serving poor farmers in the community in cases dealing with title disputes. In succeeding years he served as the clerk of the Provincial Assembly, High Sheriff of Essex (now divided into Essex and Union) County. Elected to the Provincial Congress in 1775, he then represented New Jersey at the Second Continental Congress in 1776, where he signed the Declaration of Independence. He served in the congress through the Revolutionary War as a member of the committee of Public Safety. He retired and was unable to attend the Federal Constitutional Convention in 1787, however he is said to have been active in community politics until his death in 1794. Clark Township, New Jersey, is named in his honor.”

Abraham and his wife had ten children. The two oldest served with the Revolutionary forces and took part in the Battles of Trenton and Princeton.

From The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence, we find, ” Clark was one of only twelve men including Alexander Hamilton, John Dickinson, Edmund Randolph, and James Madison Jr., who attended the Annapolis Convention of 1786 to discuss remedies to the federal government. As early as August 1, 1776 Clark was concerned about the debates underway surrounding the country’s first constitution when he penned the following remarks to Rev. Caldwell:

aclark-copy-215x300“. . . Our Congress have now under Consideration a Confederation of the States. Two Articles give great trouble, the one for fixing the Quotas of the States towards the Public expence and the other whether Each state shall have a Single Vote or in proportion to the Sums they raise or the num[be]r of Inhabitants they contain. I assure you the difficulties attending these Points at Times appear very Alarming. Nothing but the Present danger will ever make us all Agree, and I sometimes even fear that will be insufficient.”

The New Jersey legislature passed “Clark’s Law,” which was “An Act for Regulating and Shortening the Proceeding of the Courts of Law” in 1784. Later, Clark put forth another bill to prevent the Importation of Slaves and “to authorize the Manumission of them under certain Restrictions and to prevent the Abuse of Slaves.” Clark did own three slaves, and they were not freed until after his death. In 1794, Clark supported legislation to suspend all relations with with England until the Treaty of Paris was upheld. The bill passed the House, but was defeated in the Senate by a tie-break cast by John Adams. (The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence)

“According to Fradin “Abraham Clark may have been the signer who was closest to being a typical citizen.” As seen above he hated pretense and elitism and never wore a wig or the ruffles of high social standing. Clark was very popular among the poor in New Jersey. Contemporaries commented that Clark was ‘limited in his circumstances, moderate in his desires, and unambitious of wealth’ and ‘very temperate’ as noted by Hatfield. According to historian, Edward C. Quinn, Clark ‘. . . regarded honesty, thrift, and independence as cardinal public virtues.’ He loved to study and imbued a generous character. Clark was particularly admired for his punctuality, integrity and perseverance.

Clark-tomb-300x211“Clark described himself as a Whig, and demonstrated throughout his life and in public service to be a champion of the people’s liberties. Bogin stated ‘One difference between Clark and many other Whigs [was he understood] . . . tyranny might arise from the new American centers of power as well as from the British . . . . Clark ‘did not believe men in public office should use their positions to confer favors on members of their personal families’ according to Quinn. When his two sons were prisoners of war on the Jersey he refused to reveal the issue to Congressional delegates. Only when members found out about the treatment of Thomas Clark in the Jersey dungeon did intervention occur. When Congress threatened retaliatory measures on a British officer Clark’s son was released from the dungeon, but neither son escaped the Jersey until the general exchange of prisoners. The British offered to release Clark’s sons if he defected to the Tory side, but he refused.” (The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence)

Posted in America, American History, British history, Declaration of Independence, Uncategorized | 3 Comments