When I first learned something about the difference between rectors and vicars, I accepted the definition as rectors received the greater tithes, vicars received the smaller tithes, and curates received wages. I used this concept in previous stories. For example, in writing myAusten-inspired tale, Amending the Shades of Pemberley, I created a character related to the Bennets’ Aunt Gardiner, a younger brother who is a clergyman and Mary’s “love” interest in the tale. I originally thought to make him a rector, so he might be richer, but then I chose to make him a vicar, where he would receive part of the tithes, but not all of them.
A fortunate chance had recommended him [Mr. Collins] to Lady Catherine de Bourgh when the living of Hunsford was vacant; and the respect which he felt for her high rank, and his veneration for her as his patroness, mingling with a very good opinion of himself, of his authority as a clergyman, and his right as a rector, made him altogether a mixture of pride and obsequiousness, self-importance and humility.—Pride and Prejudice, chapter 15
from C. E. Brock
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In my new series from Dragonblade Publishing, the heroine’s Uncle Philip is a vicar on an estate in Kent, close to where Lord Benjamin Thompson lives. Lady Freya Cunningham means to place herself purposely in the way of Lord Aaran Graham, a Scottish lord who her father despises, but that is another facet of the tale. From book 4 of the series, Lost in the Lyon’s Garden, we learn that Miss Victoria Whitchurch’s father was also a vicar, but what was the benefit of being a curate, a vicar, or a rector in the Regency?
A church living was accepted to be a respectable occupation among the gentry and the aristocracy. It was a “job” which came with an income, house, and, often, farmland. It was not an occupation, such as than of a surgeon, where the man actually collected his wages for his services. Generally speaking, in a country parish, those living within the parish were required by law to pay the clergyman 10% of their income. Those “tithes” were not often paid in cash. The man might receive a percentage of the crops, the eggs, the animals, etc. The clergyman could “earn” fees for performing weddings, funerals, baptisms, etc.
In addition, there was something called “glebe,” not a word we often hear nowadays, but part of the everyday language in Jane Austen’s England. Glebe referred to a piece of land serving as part of a clergyman’s benefice and providing income.
In Jane Austen’s Sense and Sensibility, Colonel Brandon offers a rectory to Edward Ferrars. “It is a rectory, but a small one”—Sense and Sensibility, chapter 39
from C.E. Brock
An essay in Persuasion 16 of Jane Austen Society of North America, it says often the documents setting up each living set out who received what. Of course, a living in Kent, where Lady Catherine resided, would have different produce and tithable products from those in Derbyshire, where Mr. Darcy lived.
“The tenth part of all profits or fruits, both praedial, personal, and mixed, allotted to the clergy for their maintenance. Of tithes there are three kinds, viz., personal, predial, and mixed. Personal tithes are those duo or accruing from the profits of labour, art, trade, navigation, and industry of man. Pradial tithes, those which arise either from the fruits of the ground, as corn, hay, underwood, flax, hemp, &c.; or from the fruits of trees, as apples, pears, plums, cherries ; or from the produce of the garden. Mixed tithes arc such as arise from beasts, and other animals fed with the fruits of the earth, as cheese, milk, wool, lambs, calves, fowls, &c . Preadial tithes, again, are either great or small. Great tithes are those of corn, hay, and wood. Small tithes are those of flax, &c., which are prsedial; and those of wool, milk, cheese, lambs, ferrets, &c., which are mixed . The tithes of grounds newly broken up and cultivated are called decimce novates, and always belong to the vicar, as well as the small tithes. ” Dictionary of the English Church Ancient and Modern.
A Companion to the English Parish Church says of tithes: There are three types of tithes: praedial tithes (calculated on income produce), mixed tithes (calculated on income from stock and labour) and personal tithes (based on income derived entirely from labour).
Where a rector was not the incumbent, the tithes were divided between the rector and the vicar. They were the Great or Rectorial and small or Vicarial tithes. Vicarial tithes were generally those raised from labour and minor produce and as such were most difficult to raise.
“He [Mr. Elton] had a comfortable home for her [Harriet], and Emma imagined a very sufficient income; for though the vicarage of Highbury was not large, he was known to have some independent property”—Emma, chapter 4
from C. E. Brock
Greater tithes:
1. corn and other grain as beans, pease, tares, vetches. These are to be put into shocks.
2. hay and other herbs and feeds like clover, rape, woad, broom, heath, furze– and even grass.
3. Wood
Wood included hazel, birch, willow, whitethorn, holly, alder, maple, hornbeam.
Note:Trees such as oak which are used for timber are wood if less than twenty years old. Over twenty years of age, they are timber and not subject to the tithe. An exception was made of cherry wood in Buckinghamshire and the willows in Southampton.
Lesser tithes:
pasturage for sheep or cattle
flax
hemp
madder (a scrambling or prostrate Eurasian plant of the bedstraw family)
hops
potatoes
turnips
cabbage
parsley
fruit of trees including acorns
calves, colts, kids, sucklings
wool and lamb
milk
cheese
fowl
bees— no tithe on bees but tithe on beeswax and honey
Nothing that comes from a mine or a quarry is tithed. No new stone or lead grows.
Lots of Regency based books feature a wedding scene, but what all does that include: Here’s a quick checklist of the idea of marriage licenses, do’s and don’t’s in the actual ceremony, etc. Yes, Lyon on the Inside has two weddings. Lord Benjamin Thompson and Miss Victoria Whitchurch finally have their wedding after Miss Whitchurch came out of mourning the death of her sister, which you learned in book 4, Lost in the Lyon’s Garden. Book 5, Lyon on the Inside, as this is a “romantic” suspense, also features a wedding near the end of the book. Trust me, Lord Aaran Graham and Lady Freya Cunningham deserved a beautiful wedding after all I put them through in the climax of the series. So, what exactly should you, as a reader, know about Regency weddings?
Hardwicke’s Marriage Act of 1753
After this act, it was much more difficult for a couple to marry in England and Wales. First, parental consent was required for anyone to marry under the age of 21, which is a problem for my heroine in this tale, for she is a few weeks short of the monumental date as the story progresses. After 1753, in order to get married, a couple needed to have a license or the reading of the Banns to be legally married in England or Wales.
The Reading of the Banns went something like this: “I publish the Banns of marriage between [Groom’s Name] of [his local parish] and [Bride’s Name] of [her local parish]. If any of you know cause or just impediment why these two persons should not be joined together in Holy matrimony, ye are to declare it. This is the first [second, third] time of asking.”
These banns were read on three consecutive Sundays or Holy Days during Divine Service, immediately after the Offertory. As mentioned above, if one was below the age of 21, he or she or both required parental permission to marry. At least one of the marrying couple had to be a resident in the parish in which they wish to marry. [I did a little fancy two step in this rule because the heroine actually lived in the adjoining parish for a week, but as that parish no longer had a vicar by the end of the novel, I stretched the meaning of residency just a bit.] If the persons came from separate parishes, the Banns were read in both and the curate of one parish could not solemnize the wedding without a certificate from the curate of both, stating the Banns had been “thrice asked.”
Banns were only good for three months, and wedding ceremonies had to take place between 8 A.M. and noon, and they required two witnesses to sign off on the certificate.
A Common/Ordinary/Bishop License was obtained from any bishop or archbishop. With such a license, no banns were necessary and the three Sundays [2-3 weeks’ rule] was reduced to a waiting period of 7 days. Minors still required parental permission, along with a sworn statement of no impediment. That meant the groom and bride were not related to each other in the prohibited degrees, meaning proof of a deceased spouse was provided. One of those marrying had to live in the parish for 4 weeks. Again, the ceremony took place between 8 and noon and required 2 witnesses. A bishop’s license could cost somewhere between 10 shillings and one pound to purchase.
A Special License could be obtained from Doctors Commons and the office of the Archbishop of Canterbury or his representative. This meant the couple could marry at any convenient time or place, but it still required a clergy of the Church of England, an application with the names of both parties [cannot be filled in later as some Regency authors like to say], proof of age, etc. There were NO provisions for marrying by proxy in England, so forget that as a plot point also. A special license was available to peers, their children, baronets, knights, members of Parliament, Westminster Court Judges, and Privy Councillors. They cost somewhere around 20 guineas. To that, in 1808, was the cost of the actual paper used for the license due to the Stamp Act, meaning an additional 4 pounds. By 1815, the Stamp Act declared one would require 5 pounds for the vellum or parchment upon which the license was printed.
The Act also put a stop to Fleet Marriages, legally binding marriages (under both Common and Ecclesiastical Law), that took advantage of a Common Law loophole which allowed couples to marry by a simple exchange of vows. Fleet Prison, a debtor’s prison in London, was the best known place where these marriages could be performed, hence the name. Jewish and Quaker ceremonies were exempt. Clergymen conducting clandestine marriages risked transportation.
Scottish Weddings were had for those brave enough to make a run to the Scottish border. One must recall these were “over the anvil” style weddings, not the Church of England churches that enforced the Hardwicke Act rules. Many visited Gretna Green or Lamberton or Mordington or Coldstream Bridge, just to name a few. As long as one was on the Scottish side of the border, a “hand-fasting” style ceremony which required, at least, two witnesses.
First, I should say, I have created a modiste who appears in many of my Regency based stories. Her back story says that the name of “Madame Emmeline” has nothing to do with her being French. Like many of my fellow authors, I have a woman in this position presenting the reader a “history” of a different sort. If you were astute, you might have learned something of the woman in my “Lyon in Disguise” when Lady Annalise learns of her husband’s previous mistress. Anyway, what do we know a “modiste” in the Regency?
In the Regency era, a modiste was a fashionable, often French-influenced, female dressmaker or fashion merchant who designed, made, and styled women’s high-end clothing, serving as both couturier and stylist, creating gowns for balls, daywear, and bridal wear, and holding significant influence over fashion trends.
Key Aspects of a Modiste:
Fashion Authority: They were key figures in disseminating fashion, advising ladies on what was appropriate and stylish, and having designs featured in magazines like Ackermann’s Repository.
Skilled Craftswomen: Modistes ran businesses with teams of seamstresses, creating complex garments from scratch, often working long hours to meet client demands for new dresses.
French Connection: The term itself is French, and many prominent modistes had French origins or adopted French styles, adding to their allure and exclusivity.
High-End Clientele: They catered to the ton (high society) and wealthy middle-class women seeking the latest styles, with some building famous brands like Madame Lanchester or Miss Pierpoint.
Business & Influence: Successful modistes were savvy entrepreneurs who used fashion plates and magazines to build their brand, though they often faced financial risks from clients.
In essence, a modiste was the Regency equivalent of today’s high-fashion designer and personal stylist, crucial for any woman wanting to be seen as fashionable.
Beatrice Knight in a piece entitled “Fascinating Regency Modistes” tells us, “Fashion was a tough business in Regency London. Most dressmakers labored in anonymity, but a few entrepreneurial women built brands synonymous with high fashion. Success could be a mixed blessing, however.
“Just as today’s A-listers gad about in clothing and jewelry loaned by designers eager for exposure, ladies of the beau monde were the influencers of their era, and many kept up appearances at the expense of the tradespeople who served them. Cutting back was inconceivable to the aristocratic fashionable who fell on hard times, and their unpaid bills could be ruinous. Two of the most celebrated modistes of the era, Madame Lanchester and Miss Pierpoint, were in and out of bankruptcy; others, like Court dressmaker Miss Letitia Collins, simply closed up shop.
“Anyone interested in 19th century fashion will have seen plates published by La Belle Assemblée, Ackermann’s Repository of Arts, the Lady’s Magazine, and Lady’s Monthly Museum, among others. If you were an entrepreneurial modiste running a magazin des modes in London, you might kill to have a design featured in one of these avidly-devoured publications. Who can say if Mrs. Mary Ann Bell would have spent 20 years as a top Regency modiste without her continuous exposure in La Belle Assemblée, which was owned by her father-in-law. “
John Penn was 36 years of age when he signed the Declaration of Independence. He was a lawyer by trade and the father of three children. He died early on in 1788 at the age of 48.
Patriot, Continental Congress member, and North Carolina signer of the Declaration of Independence, John Penn was a native of Caroline County, Virginia. Like many others who risked their lives to bring freedom to the American states, Penn’s contributions are often overlooked in the historical context.
“John Penn was born on May 17, 1741, at Port Royal, Caroline County, Virginia, the only child of Moses Penn and Catherine (Taylor) Penn. Penn’s grandfather, also named John Penn, was born about 1690 and died in 1741, but it is not known when the Penn family came to America. John’s great-grandfather on his mother’s side, James Taylor, was born in his ancestral home, Pennington Castle, about 20 miles from Carlisle in England. He was a descendant of Baron Taillefer who fought at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 and became the Earl of Pennington. James Taylor arrived in Virginia in 1635 at the age of 20 and established the estate of Hare Forest on Chesapeake Bay between the James and North Rivers. He married Frances Walker, and two of their descendants became presidents of the United States—James Madison and Zachary Taylor.” (The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence)
At age 18, Penn’s life changed when his father died suddenly. He required an occupation to support his mother and their farm.
Although he achieved only a limited, formal education, Penn read many books from the library of Edmund Pendleton, a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses’ and Penn’s uncle. Pendleton was an accomplished attorney, described by his friend Thomas Jefferson as “the greatest orator” in the colonies. Pendleton moved people both by knowledge and empathy, and wrote George Washington’s will the night before Washington was appointed Commander in Chief by the Continental Congress.
Under the tutelage of Pendleton, Penn served as a legal apprentice. Under Pendleton’s auspices Penn had the opportunity to observe some of Virginia’s finest lawyers, learning both the fine points of the law and techniques. Just three years after the death of his father, in 1762, John Penn was licensed to practice law in Virginia, and did so for the next twelve years. Penn first practiced law in Virginia before traveling to Granville County, North Carolina, and establishing a law practice.
On July 28, 1763, Penn married Susanna Lyne and they raised two children. Following many of his relatives, in 1774, Penn moved his family to Granville County, North Carolina, taking up residence near Williamsboro. Ironically, also in 1774, “Penn found himself brought into court on charges of disrespectful and perhaps treasonous remarks about King George. Taxes and duties without representation were the issues, and Penn was in the vanguard of those colonials wanting immediate redress of the wrong or to break away from the mother country. It seems that Penn had been intemperate in remarks about the king in a public meeting. Someone present reported him to royal authorities, and Penn was duly charged. Although tried before friendly townsmen, Penn was found guilty by the perhaps intimidated jury. The judge, perhaps less fearful, limited Penn’s punishment to a one penny fine. A man of principle, John Penn refused to pay the fine, thus sticking his neck out even further.” (DSDI)
In truth, Penn was more progressive than his Uncle Pendleton (who was a judge). Pendleton still hoped the American states might claim the same rights as the citizens in Great Britain, while Penn early on saw the need to separate from the England.
Penn’s involvement in public affairs began with his 1775 election to the Continental Congress. He was reelected in 1777, 1778, and 1779 and served on various committees.
During the American Revolution, Penn contributions to the war effort were noteworthy. Before signing the Declaration of Independence, Penn and Joseph Hewes, both North Carolina delegates, voted on July 2, 1776 for independence from Great Britain. Although absent from voting, another North Carolina delegate, William Hooper, signed the Declaration of Independence with Hewes and Penn. In 1778, Penn signed the Articles of Confederation, and Governor Abner Nash appointed the Tar Heel to serve on the North Carolina Board of War from 1780-1781.
“What was quite out of character for John Penn occurred during the summer heat of a Congressional session when Henry Laurens, the President of Congress, and John Penn agreed to a duel over some murky matter which history does not record. The day of the dual found the antagonists and their party of seconds having breakfast together at the same hotel. A previous rain had turned Philadelphia’s unpaved streets into a treacherous quagmire. After breakfast Penn and Laurens were walking together toward their appointed meeting place when the two men came to a crossing deep in mud. In a compassionate moment, Penn offered the older man his arm for support before they attempted to cross the street. History does not record the exact words exchanged but they quickly forgot their disagreement and returned to the hotel without firing a shot—probably exchanging a few toasts afterwards to complete the proceedings.
“In 1780 the British embarked on their attempt to win the Revolutionary War in the South, defeating the American army under General Gates at Camden on August 16, 1780. Colonel Otto Williams, a combatant, gave a vivid description of the desertions and looting that took place: “Leading a torrent of unarmed militia who fled the scene was General Gates and Richard Caswell (a general who later became governor of North Caroline) who fled non-stop on horseback to Charlotte, 60 miles or so away….Another general had his sword stolen from his tent…Another group helped themselves to Caswell’s mess, drinking a pipe of excellent Madeira.”
“On August 23, 1780, at Hillsborough, the General Assembly appointed Penn and two others to the three-man Board of War in North Carolina to prepare for the British invasion. John Penn stepped forward to take charge, when the other two members of the Board proved incompetent. He established effective communication with General Greene (who replaced General Gates), raised recruits, found funding for the military, provided transportation and supplies, disarmed Tories, and generally spurred the people into action.
“John Taylor of Caroline described Penn’s accomplishments during this period: “He (Penn) was surrounded by discouraged friends, helpless citizens, or inveterate foes—but he had a task to discharge—and an arduous one. But nature had formed him for the effort. Indefatigable, cheerful, extremely courteous in his manners, firm in his political principles, and invigorated by an inextinguishable ardor, he went through the crisis with honor to himself, to the satisfaction of the state, and rendered service inestimable to the prosecution of the war.”
“American victories at King’s Mountain and Cowpens, and Greene’s standoff with the British at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse compelled the British Army under Cornwallis to begin a retreat through North Carolina and Virginia that ended with the victory at Yorktown. Jealous perhaps of Penn’s success, and feeling that his actions impinged on his own authority, Governor Burke recalled Penn and persuaded the legislature to abolish the Board of War in 1781.”(DSDI)
Penn proved to be the most active member of the Board; he supplied war materials to Nathanael Greene’s Continentals and Francis Marion’s guerrillas. As a result of these actions, Penn has been credited for Charles Cornwallis’s ultimate defeat.
Following the American Revolution, the Declaration of Independence signatory was appointed in April 1783 by Robert Morris, another signer of the Declaration of Independence, as North Carolina’s receiver of taxes for the Confederation government. One month later, however, Penn resigned not given sufficient authority to collect taxes. Penn then returned to practicing law until his death.
Penn went to the Lord on September 14, 1788. He was buried at his home a few miles northeast of Stovall in Granville County, North Carolina. On April 25, 1894, his remains were re-interred under the Signers Monument, together with the remains of William Hooper, close by the equestrian statue of General Nathaniel Greene at the Guilford Courthouse National Military Park.
In addition to the materials from the Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence noted above this post includes details from these Resources:
One of the antagonists, in this final book of the series, mentions leaving our hero’s and heroine’s bodies in the Thames Estuary and permitting them to wash out into the North Sea, but was that really a possibility? I know the answer, but it part of the mystery of the story. However, here is some actual information so you will also know the truth.
Historic England tells us, “The Greater Thames Estuary is the narrow strip of soft coastline between the Swale Estuary on the Kent coast and the River Stour on the Essex-Suffolk border. This is a low-lying coastal landscape extending along the Thames into inner London. It is a landscape of shallow creeks, drowned estuaries, mudflats and broad tracts of tidal salt-marsh with sand and shingle beaches along the coastal edge. Just over half the land area nowadays (56%) is agricultural and 21% is urban, including the riverside part of east London.
“Historic character ■ Estates based further inland used the coastal marshes for grazing sheep and cattle, the reclamation of marshland for farmland having a long history documented as far back as the 8th century. ■ This area has a low density of farmsteads scattered across the landscape, relating to drainage and enclosure by ditches and hedgerows dating from the medieval period and earlier and set within a landscape that was sparsely settled until the development of coastal towns and industries from the late 19th century. ■ Large high-status farmsteads, some of them (especially between Southend and the river Crouch in Essex) moated, are intermixed with relatively high densities of much smaller farmsteads which have been subject to much more change. ■ There are many remains of sheep folds and routeways for moving stock in the marshes.
“Significance ■ Farmsteads Mapping in Kent has shown that survival of pre-1700 farm buildings is relatively. low; 21% of recorded farmsteads in the Kent part of this area retain a pre-1700 farmhouse and 4% retain a pre-1700 working building. The latter are all concentrated in the area east of Gillingham whilst 3% retain both a pre-1700 farmhouse and working building. These sites have potential to be of high significance. ■ Farmstead groups that retain some or all of their traditional buildings are very rare in a national context – only 53% of recorded farmsteads in Kent retain some traditional farmstead character. Of recorded farmsteads, 27% retain more than 50% of their historic form, well below the average of 52% for all the mapped areas in the south-east. ■ There are some rare survivals of early multiyard layouts fringing the coastal marshes, with shelter sheds and other buildings relating to the feeding of cattle and growing of corn on higher land. ■ Buildings of the 18th century and earlier mostly comprise large aisled or unaisled barns, with some rare surviving examples of small three-bay barns associated with the smaller farms that developed along the fringes of the marshland.”
Readers are always asking me questions regarding which is which when it comes to Regency era coaches. Today, I am offering a short primer.
Barouche, Gig, Curricle, and Phaeton are types of 18th & 19th-century horse-drawn carriages, differing in wheels (two vs. four), number of horses, and design, with Barouche a large four-seater open carriage with a folding hood, Curricle a light, two-wheeled vehicle for two horses, Gig a lighter, often single-horse two-wheeled carriage, and Phaeton a sporty, open four-wheeled carriage for owner-drivers, known for its high perch and instability.
Design: A large, open carriage with seats for four, a separate driver’s seat, and a folding hood, but only covering the rear passengers, leaving the front open.
Key Feature: A large, elegant carriage for social outings, often pulled by four horses.
Public Domain ~ Print, one of a series of nine showing early 19th century carriages, published by R Ackermann, 101 Strand, London.
Wheels: Four, with smaller front wheels.
Design: An open, lightweight carriage for the owner-driver, with a high seat and often no side protection.
Key Feature: Sporty, fast, and sometimes unstable, named after the mythical Phaethon; came in high-perch (risky) and lower (safer) styles.
An Aside: Here in the Charlotte, NC area, we have a local weather man [FOX network] whose name is Ted Phaeton. I imagine I am one of the few who spell his last name correctly, and do not get me going on Southern pronunciations of his name!
Public Domain – via Wikipedia Berkeley Plantation, home of the Harrison family (two Presidents), initial construction of Georgian mansion in 1726. In Charles City County, Virginia.
Benjamin Harrison was 50 years of age when he signed the Declaration of Independence. He was a plantation owner and father of seven children from Virginia. He died at age 65 in 1791.
Born on 5 April 1726, Benjamin Harrison V lived the life guaranteed him by his wealthy parents. He was the eldest son of Benjamin Harrison IV and Ann Carter and took over the family’s extensive holdings at the age of 19, when his father and two sisters were killed in a lightning storm. Berkeley Plantation is located west of Williamsburg, Virginia, upon the James River. Although young, Harrison V built the family fortune, eventually claiming eight plantations and an extensive shipping business. “Benjamin’s great-great-grandfather, Benjamin Harrison I, first stepped on American soil on March 15, 1633. He emigrated from the Isle of Wight in England, became a tobacco planter, and was the first clerk of the Royal Council. Benjamin’s mother, Ann Carter, was the daughter of Robert “King” Carter whose family like the Harrisons was a force in Virginia and American politics. He served for many years as treasurer of the Colony and member of the King’s Council. The “King” was a wealthy and influential member of the Virginia aristocracy and owned over 300,000 acres and a thousand slaves. Ann’s great-grandfather, William Carter, a resident of Casstown, Hereford County and the Middle Temple in England, came to Virginia about 1649 and built the ancestral home Corotoman in Lancaster County, Virginia.” (The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence)
He was a classmate of Patrick Henry and of Thomas Jefferson at William and Mary College. He married his second cousin Elizabeth Bassett, the niece of Martha Washington. “Eight of the Harrisons’ children survived to adulthood. Their most famous son was William Henry Harrison, the American general in the victory over the Indians at Tippecanoe, and who was elected President of the United States in 1840. [He died after only one month in office.] Their great-grandson, Benjamin Harrison, a Civil War general, was also elected President, in 1888. Politics was a way of life for the Harrisons. As early as the 1640s, the First Family of Virginia had a reputation of arguing with British authorities over individual rights. One Harrison was imprisoned for six years for complaining about tyranny and treason.”(The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence)
At age 21, Harrison began his political career as a representative in the Virginia House of Burgesses. He spent a quarter of a century in the Burgesses, often leading the group as Speaker. He was most outspoken against the Stamp Act and assisted in penning Virginia’s protest. Even so, he opposed Patrick Henry’s civil disobedience stance. He supported taxes for the importation of slaves. Eventually, he was elected to the First Continental Congress. He helped to write the Articles of Association. He was said to have roomed with George Washington and Peyton Randolph during those early of days of the revolution. Benjamin was grandson of “King” Carter, and therefore, cousin to Thomas Nelson and Carter Braxton, who also signed the Declaration of Independence. He often served as Chairman of the Whole.
Benjamin Harrison was highly regarded in Congress, and was frequently appointed Chairman of the Whole from March 1776 to August, 1777. He remained in Congress until 1778, when he became speaker in the Virginia legislature. He was a vocal advocate for the Bill of Rights being in place before the ratification of the U. S. Constitution.
“Benjamin Rush noted that Harrison “had strong state prejudices and was hostile to the leading men from the New England states.” But Harrison appreciated the evenhandedness of the new President, John Hancock, complimenting him as “noble, disinterested and generous to a very great degree.” On the important date of June 7, 1776 Benjamin Harrison was chosen to introduce fellow Virginian Richard Henry Lee whose resolution called for independence from England. He was selected to read Jefferson’s draft of the Declaration of Independence to the assembled delegates on July 1, and served as Chairman of the Whole during the debate over independence on July 2.” (The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence)
Harrison was well known for his sense of humor, and many tales are remarked upon. From Denise Kiernan and Joseph D’Agnest in Signing Their Lives Away, we learn “Once the story goes, when the members needed to select a new president of Congress, some liked Hancock for the job, but Hancock pooh-poohed the notion. Six-foot-four Harrison crossed the room in a bound, physically lifted the smaller Hancock, and plopped him down in the President’s chair. ‘We shall show Mother Britain how little we care for her,” Harrison reportedly said, ‘by making a Massachusetts man our president, who she has excluded from pardon by public proclamation.’ (At this point in history, Hancock and Samuel Adams were reportedly wanted for treason by the Crown.)”
“On August 2, while preparing to sign the Declaration of Independence, Harrison famously quipped to Elbridge Gerry who had taken his place at the table to sign: ‘I shall have a great advantage over you, Mr. Gerry, when we are all hung for what we are now doing. From the size and weight of my body I shall die in a few minutes and be with the Angels, but from the lightness of your body you will dance in the air an hour or two before you are dead.'” (The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence) [Note that Gerry was not in Philadelphia On August 2, 1776, when this supposedly took place, but it is a wonderful story, nonetheless.]
In Congress Harrison solicited financial and other assistance from other countries as a member of the Secret Correspondence Committee. He also worked closely with General Washington as part of the Marine and War and Ordinances Committees in planning the American army. During the war he also took care of matters at home by serving as a lieutenant in the county militia, and took the job of chief magistrate as well.
After the war, Harrison remained active in Virginia politics. Soon after his 65th birthday he suffered from a severe case of gout, and on April 24, the disease took his life. He is buried at his beloved Berkeley Plantation. Because of Harrison’s 240-pound, six foot four stature, he was often referred to as the “Falstaff of Congress.”
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“The miniature at left is the only surviving life portrait of Harrison. It was apparently survived only because one of Harrison’s family carried it it with them when they fled their house at Berkeley Plantation just before the traitor Benedict Arnold and his men landed their boats at next door Westover in January, 1781.
“The Redcoats proceeded to pillage from Berkeley to Richmond. While at Berkeley, Arnold’s men built a bonfire of all the Harrison family portraits and took rifle practice using his cows. They were repaid on October 19th, when the British Army surrendered at nearby Yorktown, effectively ending the Revolutionary War.” (The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence)
In this last book of my Lyon’s Den series, both the hero and the heroine are from Scotland. 27% of my DNA is directly from Central Scotland. My 9th Great-Grandfather on my father’s side was the 7th Chieftain of the Clan MacThomas. John Mccomie (Iain Mòr), my 9x great-grandfather, has passed into the folklore of Perthshire. 40% of my DNA claims Celtic/Gaelic roots. According to the tale of the Mccomies, my 9th great-grandfather objected to the taxes the Earl of Atholl had placed on them. One must remember that the Mormaer or Earl of Atholl was the title of the holder of a medieval comital lordship straddling the highland province of Atholl (Ath Fodhla), now in northern Perthshire. Atholl is a special Mormaerdom, because a King of Atholl is reported from the Pictish period. ANYWAY, the Earl of Atholl thought to be done away with my great-grandfather by employing a champion swordsman from Italy. One problem existed; Mccomie slew the swordsman instead.
Let us have a look at some of the superstitions. These come from Spooky Scotland.
Baobhan Sìth: A particularly evil and dangerous female vampire from the highlands of Scotland who preyed on unwary male travellers in the glens and mountains. [I used the Baobhan Sìth in my vampiric Pride and Prejudice tale.]
Bodachan Sabhail (Little Old Man of the Barn): A brownie who would come to the aid of aging farmers and thresh their grain for them.
Brown Man of the Muirs: A dwarf from the Scottish borders who serves as a guardian spirit over the wild animals. He wore brown clothes and had a shock of frizzy red hair and wild looking eyes.
Cailleach Bheur: A blue-faced hag found in the Scottish Highlands or is known as the Carlin in eastern Scotland. She is also known as Beira, Queen of the Winter. She is ill-tempered and dangerous and is seen with a crow on her left shoulder. Associated with winter, she was reborn at Samhain or Halloween and ruled over winter when she brought the winter snows. She carried a magical staff which froze the ground with every tap. She also guarded animals in winter. A wooden log was burned at Yule in her honour.
Cailleachan: The Cailleachan are the eight hag sisters of the Cailleach. They are giantesses and are powerful thunder, storm or sea hags.
Dhu Guisch/ Beast of the Charred Forest/ The Dragon of Dornoch: The Beast of the Charred Forests, or Dhu Guisch, is a fearsome, fire-breathing dragon from Sutherland, Scotland, said to have incinerated vast ancient woodlands. This terrifying monster could only be slain by someone who saw it before it saw them, a feat achieved by Saint Gilbert of Dornoch.
Domhnull Mor Bad an t-Sithean (Big Donald, King of the Faeries): Big Donald, King of the Fairies, resides in Glen More’s Loch Morlich area. He’s known for playing invisible bagpipes and once drove away lowlanders by pelting them with sticks and stones.
Fachan (Peg-Leg-Jack/ Direach): A giant/ cruel, malevolent faerie with improbable deformities. One hand emerges from his chest; one leg is attached to his haunch; one eye rests in his head, one tooth juts from his mouth and one tuft of rigidly inflexible hair grows from that head.
Gentle Annie/ Gentle Annie: The nature spirit and Hag controlling the southwesterly gales and winds in the Cromarty Firth. The Firth is guarded against the wind on the north and east by tall hills, but a gap allows sporadic and violent wind bursts to rush through, earning the fay a reputation for treachery. It is thought that this might be another manifestation of the Cailleach or Carlin.
Muc-sheilch: A kin to the famed Nessie yet unmistakably its own beast, the Muc-sheilch haunts the waters of Loch Maree in Wester Ross. Described as a loch-dwelling monster with a distinctive form, it was said to slip between neighbouring lochs.
Sìthichean (Faeries): Often called “the wee folk,” faeries or the sìthichean as they are called in Gaelic, are central to Scottish folklore and appear in many forms under many names. They are commonly divided into two courts: the Seelie, dangerous yet less malevolent, whose members are mischievous but often harmless; and the Unseelie, malicious beings known to harm humans for sport. There have been many human encounters with faeries, including kidnappings, faery tithes and the infamous faery rade.
Trow: A malignant or mischievous fairy or spirit in the folkloric traditions of the Orkney and Shetland Islands. They are generally inclined to be short of stature, ugly, and shy. Trows are nocturnal creatures and are similar to Scandinavian trolls. They venture out of their ‘trowie knowes’ (earthen mound dwellings) solely in the evening, and often enter households as the inhabitants sleep. Trows traditionally have a fondness for music. Thus, folktales tell of their habit of kidnapping musicians or luring them to their dens.
Lewis Morris was a 50 year old plantation owner from New York when he signed the Declaration of Independence. The father of 10 children, Morris died in 1798 at the age of 71.
Lewis Morris III was born on April 8, 1726, in Morrisania, New York, into a rich and privileged family. In 1762, upon the death of his father, Lewis inherited the family estate, Morrisania, which covered about 2000 acres, and resembled a small town, with farmers who rented land, blacksmiths, carpenters and others who worked the estate for wages. Lewis attended Yale College, but left without earning a degree. As the eldest son, he was expected to devote his time into running Morrisania. For many years, he would follow the typical pattern of a wealthy gentleman.
Following the footsteps of his grandfather, who had been Royal Governor of New Jersey, and his father, who had been a judge, Lewis decided to enter public service. He was elected to the New York Legislature in 1769.
In 1749, at age 23, he married Mary Beekman Walton. Together Lewis and Mary had ten children: Catherine, Mary, Lewis, Jacob, Sarah (who died as a child), William, Helena, James, Staats, and Richard.
“As a wealthy landowner, most people expected him to support Britain, but he surprised everyone by supporting the patriot cause. When New York selected its first delegates to the Continental Congress, Lewis Morris was not selected, because he did not support Great Britain. When electing delegates for the Second Continental Congress in May 1775, this time he was elected, since the majority of New Yorkers had changed their minds. During the critical vote for independence on July 2, 1776, Morris was back home in New York, but he attended the NY Convention in White Plains, NY, which approved the Declaration on July 9, and returned to Philadelphia to sign the document after its approval.” (Find a Grave)
So, why would a man who certainly did not suffer from the British actions in the Americas take such a stance? His discontent grew slowly, but steadily. For example, New York housed a large garrison of British troops, who were supposed to protect the American colonies, but the British decided to tax New York citizens to pay for this protection. The New York assembly refused these actions from the Crown, but the New York governor requisitioned the funds without consent. This action upset Morris, and he became quite vocal about the outcome. This was only the beginning of his change of mind.
” To prevent an intercourse between the citizens and the fleet, so injurious to the patriotic cause, timely measures were adopted by the committee of safety; but for a long time no efforts were availing, and even after General Washington had established his headquarters at New York, he was obliged to issue his proclamation, interdicting all intercourse and correspondence with the ships of war and other vessels belonging to the king of Great Britain.
“But, notwithstanding this prevalent aversion to a separation from Great Britain, there were many in the colony who believed that a declaration of independence was not only a point of political expediency, but a matter of paramount duty. Of this latter class, Mr. Morris was one; and, in giving his vote for that declaration, he exhibited a patriotism and disinterestedness which few had it in their power to display. He was at this time in possession of an extensive domain, within a few miles of the city of New York. A British army had already landed from their ships, which lay within cannon shot of the dwelling of his family. A signature to the Declaration of Independence would insure the devastation of the former, and the destruction of the latter. But, upon the ruin of his individual property, he could look with comparative indifference, while he knew that his honor was untarnished, and the interests of his country were safe. He voted, therefore, for a separation from the mother country, in the spirit of a man of honor, and of enlarged benevolence.” (Colonial Hall)
In 1769, Lewis Morris was elected to the Colonial Assembly in New York. In 1774, he resigned his position as judge to focus on the oncoming war. Lewis was elected to the New York Provincial Congress. While he was a member of this Congress, they sent him to Continental Congress as a delegate for New York.
“He served in the Continental Congress from 1775 to 1777, where he worked on the committees that supervised supplies of ammunition and military stores for the Army. During the war, the British burned and wrecked Morrisania. Lewis would spend many years after the war rebuilding his estate. Morris then served in the New York Legislature from 1777 to 1790. He was also a Major General of the New York State Militia during the Revolutionary War. In 1787, Lewis’s brother, Gouverneur Morris wrote much of the final draft of the US Constitution. Lewis attended the convention in Poughkeepsie, NY, to determine if New York would accept the Constitution. Thanks largely to Lewis Morris’s efforts, a narrow vote of 30 in favor to 27 opposed, was achieved, bringing New York into the union as the 11th state.” (Find a Grave)
From the start, Lewis Morris was an active advocate for independence in Congress. In 1776, he was among the 56 men who signed the Declaration of Independence. Lewis Morris’ most famous quote came from a conversation he had with his half-brother, Gouverneur Morris. Gouverneur, a politician and a signatory of the Articles of Confederation, warned him about what would happen if he signed the Declaration and advised him against it. Lewis’s reply was “Damn the consequences. Give me the pen.” With that, he fearlessly scratched his name on the document.
Morris’s three eldest sons followed their father’s example for service to their country. One served for a time as aid-de-camp to General Sullivan, but afterwards entered the family of General Greene, and was with that officer during his brilliant campaign in the Carolinas; the second son was appointed aid-de-camp to General Charles Lee, and was present at the gallant defense of Fort Moultrie, where he greatly distinguished himself. The youngest of these sons, though but a youth, entered the army as a lieutenant of artillery, and honorably served during the war.
gravesite for Lewis Morris St. Ann’s Episcopal Church http://www.findagrave.com/ cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page= pv&GRid=2767&PIpi=55231153
One would find it a bit odd that Morris’s fabulous estate of the late 1700s is now the site of public housing projects and boarded-up buildings. Morrisania was located in what is now the South Bronx, a poverty-stricken neighborhood. The British army trashed the original as retribution for Morris’s stance during the Revolutionary War. An invasion of New York by the British during the war took the British troops right to Morris’s door. The house suffered extensive damage, stands of trees were burned, cattle were slaughtered, and tenants and slaves were run off. Benjamin Rush, another signer of the Declaration of Independence, said of the loss, “[Morris] suffered the loss of many thousand pounds by the depredations of the British arm, upon his property new New York without repining. Every attachment of his heart yielded to his love of his country.”
In 1777, Lewis became a member of the New York Senate. He held this position until 1790. After this Lewis retired to his home and his family. Lewis Morris died on January 22, 1798. he was buried at Morrisania. The family vault can be found in what is known today as the Mott Haven neighborhood of the Bronx. This family vault is in the churchyard of what became St. Ann’s Church of Morrisania and is now known as St. Ann’s Episcopal Church. The manor house stands no more.
In my romantic suspense series for Dragonblade Publishing, in several of the books, I mention individuals with broken limbs, as well as have my heroes attempt to make a mold of a prominent footprint found in book 5. Lord Benjamin Thompson from book 4, who initially trained as a surgeon, advises them to use resin, wax, and gypsum, but was that the going mixture.
Early attempts at using Plaster of Paris (gypsum-based) date back thousands of years, with evidence found in Egyptian pyramids and ancient construction, where it was valued for molding and fire resistance. In the 19th century, it was famously adopted for orthopedic casts, initially using “plâtre coulé” (heavy wooden boxes) in Europe, and later in bandages perfected by Antonius Mathijsen in 1852.
Early Medical and Technical Uses
Early Orthopedic Casting (c. 1800s): Before 1852, practitioners used a technique where limbs were placed in wooden containers filled with plaster. This method, known as plâtre coulé, was heavy and limited patient mobility, prompting searches for better methods.
The Bandage Method (1852): Dutch surgeon Antonius Mathijsen revolutionized early adoption by using cotton bandages impregnated with dry, powdered plaster of Paris, which only needed to be moistened to set.
Archaeological Preservation (1860s): Giuseppe Fiorelli, at Pompeii, used plaster injected into cavities in volcanic ash to create casts of the bodies of victims.
Sculpture (18th/19th Century): Artists like John Flaxman (1755–1826) were pioneers in consistently using plaster for models and casts.
Composition and Challenges
Material Origin: It was derived from gypsum mined in Montmartre, Paris.
Rapid Setting: Early mixtures set very rapidly. To manage this in artistic or repair work, mixtures sometimes included additives like glue.
Initial Failures: Before the standardization of, and success with, the plaster bandage, attempts to use starch, wax, or clay to immobilize limbs often failed.
Early applications were, therefore, a transition from heavy, constructive molding to lighter, more versatile, and, in medicine, more functional cast-based immobilization.
“What was quite out of character for John Penn occurred during the summer heat of a Congressional session when Henry Laurens, the President of Congress, and John Penn agreed to a duel over some murky matter which history does not record. The day of the dual found the antagonists and their party of seconds having breakfast together at the same hotel. A previous rain had turned Philadelphia’s unpaved streets into a treacherous quagmire. After breakfast Penn and Laurens were walking together toward their appointed meeting place when the two men came to a crossing deep in mud. In a compassionate moment, Penn offered the older man his arm for support before they attempted to cross the street. History does not record the exact words exchanged but they quickly forgot their disagreement and returned to the hotel without firing a shot—probably exchanging a few toasts afterwards to complete the proceedings.
“The Redcoats proceeded to pillage from Berkeley to Richmond. While at Berkeley, Arnold’s men built a bonfire of all the Harrison family portraits and took rifle practice using his cows. They were repaid on October 19th, when the British Army surrendered at nearby Yorktown, effectively ending the Revolutionary War.” (
“He served in the Continental Congress from 1775 to 1777, where he worked on the committees that supervised supplies of ammunition and military stores for the Army. During the war, the British burned and wrecked Morrisania. Lewis would spend many years after the war rebuilding his estate. Morris then served in the New York Legislature from 1777 to 1790. He was also a Major General of the New York State Militia during the Revolutionary War. In 1787, Lewis’s brother, Gouverneur Morris wrote much of the final draft of the US Constitution. Lewis attended the convention in Poughkeepsie, NY, to determine if New York would accept the Constitution. Thanks largely to Lewis Morris’s efforts, a narrow vote of 30 in favor to 27 opposed, was achieved, bringing New York into the union as the 11th state.” (
Every Woman Dreams... 