Happy Book Birthday to Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice”

220px-PrideAndPrejudiceTitlePage.jpg images.jpg Today marks the 204th Anniversary of the release of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, and in my humble opinion, the world is a better place for having read Austen’s most popular work. 

Publisher T. Egerton, Whitehall
Publication date
28 January 1813
Media type Print (Hardback, 3 volumes)

After her death, during the nineteenth-century romantic period, Austen was often looked upon with begrudging admiration, as her elevation of intelligence over feeling contradicted the romantic temperament. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, however, Austen’s reputation rose considerably, and she gradually gained an enthusiastic cult of admirers that were known as the “Janeites.” In America, Austen was little known before 1900, but by mid-century she was receiving more critical attention there than in England. In the last decades of the twentieth century, Austen and her works received considerable attention from the general public: Most of her novels were adapted into films, modern novelists wrote sequels to Pride and Prejudice and endings to Sandition, and a mystery series was even developed with Jane Austen herself as the heroine.

 

Posted in book release, books, British history, Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice, Uncategorized | Tagged , , | 2 Comments

Pre-Elizabethan Drama: The Interlude

51AvMASH0VL._SX289_BO1,204,203,200_.jpg Pre-Elizabethan drama moved from miracle plays to morality plays to folk plays to interludes. Interludes were the last to develop. Initially, “interludes” were closed identified with morality plays, especially in subject matter. 

Precursors to Elizabethan Drama summarizes the development from Morality plays to interludes. “A separate class of drama, called the morality play, also became popular in medieval England. Morality plays, like the later developed Renaissance masques, may seem a little strange to us, as they were more allegorical in nature. That is to say, the characters were not individuals, but rather abstract concepts. For example, in the most famous morality play, Everyman, some of the characters include Death, Knowledge, Strength and Discretion. The purpose of the plays was, generally speaking, to illustrate the conflict between good and evil.

“Here again, we must not believe that such a genre could ever possibly survive were it to be all humorless instruction. The important, and very popular, development of the English morality play was the introduction of a fatuous character called Vice, to which the Elizabethan authors refer repeatedly. Vice, the tempter of man, served the Devil, but his main role seemed to be to “torment and tease” his master, to the guaranteed delight of the audience.

“Another type of play, called the interlude, developed in the 16th century. Its great practitioner was John Heywood. An interlude was brief play of a non-religious nature (we must note, however, that the terms interlude and morality play overlap, and it may not be easy, nor is it usually necessary, to absolutely categorize a given play as one type or another); for example, in Heywood’s The Play of the Weather, the god Jupiter has to determine what kind of weather to provide England, and a debate ensues between two Millers, a Gentleman and a Ranger about what kind of weather is most desirable. Again, we see that we have characters that are not developed individuals, but rather character-types.”

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The First Stage ~ Miracles, Moralities and Interludes, Everyman/Hickscorne/Magnyfycence/The Play of the Sacrament/Pride of Life/The Castell of Perseverance/Mary Magdalene/Mind, Will & Understanding/Fulgens & Lucres/Mundus et Infans

Moralities continued to be heavy in lessons in ethics. They were designed for the lower classes and presented before large audiences. The moralities denied the idea that physical pleasure and intelligent speculation against the superstitions of the day could be enjoyed without eternal damnation. These plays purported the life everlasting.

Meanwhile, by 1500, interludes separated themselves from what were termed as morality plays. First, they were shorter. Secondly, the audience changed. They were accepted by a more aristocratic viewer. Finally, they lost their moral emphasis. The interludes spoke of the values found in the world. Condemnation for enjoying some of life’s pleasures was not the subject matter. 

renaissance-theatre-troupe.jpeg Interludes were performed at colleges or at the homes of the wealthy. They were often staged between the courses of a supper. The dialogue was very lively and contemporary (politics, new scientific discoveries, the secular elements of religion, etc.). Interludes spoke of the ruling group, changing from emphasis on Protestants to Catholics, and back again. Sometimes they went so far as to “attack” a person or a cause. They might, for example, defend a personage. In John Skelton’s Magnificence, the plot satirized Thomas Wolsey, a cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church. 

John Heywood, who was mentioned above, was likely the best known writer of interludes. In his early days, Heywood served as Master of Revels at court, meaning he was to provide pleasant entertainment for those the Court hosted. Heywood studied the works of Chaucer and Boccaccio. He borrowed some of their favorite characters for his plays: friars, poticaries, peddlers, wives, husbands, pardoners, priests, etc.). He used them in situations which were also similar to the early tales. In The English Drama 900-1642 (W. W. Norton, 1963), editors Edd Winfield Parks and Richmond Croom Beatty tell us, “He [Heywood] was fortunate in appearing before the regular drama had had opportunity to develop. After him the men who wrote Interludes were mostly uninspired versifiers who found the new and lusty national drama too vigorous a form for their taste. They returned to the stock devices of early writers, they were lacking in humor and resourcefulness, and as a result their achievement is, by comparison, dull Writers of genuine talent had turned to the regular drama.” 

 

 

 

 

Posted in British history, Chaucer, drama, Elizabethan drama, Uncategorized | Tagged , , , , | 1 Comment

Fitzwilliam Darcy: Hero or Bad Boy? Guest Post from Martine Roberts

This post was originally posted on Austen Authors, but I thought it worthy of a second look. From Martine Roberts we have a post on our favorite Austen hero (or it that our favorite bad boy)?

IT is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.

This is the first, and undoubtedly the most famous sentence from Jane Austen’s popular, and much-loved novel, Pride & Prejudice

It is now 203 years since this magnificent piece of fiction was published, but it is still, if not more, popular than ever. I cannot help but ask why? Is it because we all love a love story, or maybe it’s because we enjoy the lively exchanges between Elizabeth and Darcy. Alternatively, perhaps it is because we all secretly love to see a bad boy turn good? Did Jane purposely write Darcy in this style? Or maybe she underestimated the attraction Darcy’s character would have on the female population?

There have been many visual incarnations of the Fitzwilliam Darcy character over the years, and everyone who has watched one, or all of these productions has their favourite.

My personal introduction to Mr. Darcy was at the tender age of 9, when I first watched the 1940 film version starring, Sir Laurence Olivier.
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Unaware of the multitude of inaccuracies in the film, I was nevertheless hooked.  I was seduced by the language, the clothes, their manners, and courtesies. I can’t think of anything more romantic than to have a man bow to me and then press a light kiss on my outstretched hand, (sigh). Though for a star-struck child from a working-class family, it was the prospect of a happy ending.

However, today’s generation have a plethora of Darcy’s to choose from. The two most recent, and apparently most popular, are the BBC mini-series starring the delectable Colin Firth, and his now iconic wet shirt scene. And the deliciously handsome, Matthew MacFadyen from the 2005 film version. And although Matthew did not walk out of a lake half undressed, his proposal during a thunderstorm was just as seductive. (Hands up all those who longed for him to kiss Keira Knightley in that scene?)

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Before either of these, there was the rich-voiced David Rintoul in the 1980 mini-series, which is for some reason is rarely shown on TV.

We must also include a slightly different incarnation of P & P, and one of my personal favorites, Lost in Austen, which is another TV mini-series set in both modern and the Regency times. It is a must for all Austen fans. Though Elliot Cowen’s Mr. Darcy is the only character that remotely resembles the one Jane invented, it is still very watchable.

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images-3These are just a few of the versions available to us. We also have the Bridget Jones films, Death Comes to Pemberley, Austenland, Pride and Prejudice and Zombies, etc., etc., etc.

So, what is it that attracts us to this man? Jane’s initial description of him is rather vague.

‘Mr. Darcy soon drew the attention of the room by his fine, tall person, handsome features, noble mien, and the report which was in general circulation within five minutes after his entrance, of his having ten thousand a year. The gentlemen pronounced him to be a fine figure of a man, the ladies declared he was much handsomer than Mr. Bingley, and he was looked at with great admiration for about half the evening, till his manners gave a disgust which turned the tide of his popularity; for he was discovered to be proud; to be above his company, and above being pleased; and not all his large estate in Derbyshire could then save him from having a most forbidding, disagreeable countenance, and being unworthy to be compared with his friend’

Miss Austen does not describe Darcy as having a thick head of curly hair, or that he possessed piercing blue eyes, yet these are properties we automatically attribute to him.

Undoubtedly she describes him as a gentleman of noble birth, yet he lacks all the social niceties considered essential in the day. He is rude, arrogant, proud, intolerant and over-confident of his self-worth. Having said that, let’s not forget that Jane also tells us that Darcy is tall, handsome, AND incredibly wealthy. OK, the last two items might have some influence on us, but what about Darcy as a person.

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images-5Is it because we secretly like the excitement that inevitably comes with a bad boy? Alternatively, it may be that we like to imagine that we could be the one person who could touch his heart, and by doing so, reform him? Or, is it that we cannot resist a challenge?. For me, it is all these reasons.

Jane Austen certainly knew one thing; a good novel had to have four things;

A hero, a villain, and a love story and a happy ending

In fact, all of Jane’s books follow a very similar recipe.

Each novel has a hero.

Mr. Darcy in Pride & Prejudice, Mr. Knightley in Emma, Captain Wentworth in Persuasion, Edward Ferrars in Sense & Sensibility, Edmund Bertram in Mansfield Park, and finally Henry Tilney in Northanger Abbey.

And the proverbial ‘bad guys.’

George Wickham, Mr. Elton, Mr. William Elliot, Willoughby, Captain Fredrick Tilney, and Henry Crawford.

Thankfully, (spoiler alert) Jane provides us with a happy ending in all her books.

And who could fail to be impressive by how Jane misleads us throughout the book, intertwining the character traits of Darcy and Wickham, making them both appear slightly bad while remaining generally decent. Only later in the story, as their real natures are revealed, do we discover their true worth. Darcy is the good guy with a bad reputation, while Wickham is a scoundrel, with all the appearances of being a good man. 

Yet no other of Jane’s novel have been so reproduced, or are so loved, as her baby, Pride & Prejudice. There are also thousands of spin-off books written every year on the subject. These are generally described as ‘What if’s’ or Pride & Prejudice Variations, usually involving some, or all of her characters, and some, or all of the plot lines from Jane’s original story. Indeed, I write them myself. Amazon.com: Martine J Roberts: Kindle Store

So, what is it about this book in particular? It is Darcy!

georgiana-and-wickham-at-ramsgate-2-300x225Imagine you are seeing or reading Pride & Prejudice for the first time. Initially, Jane gives us permission to dislike Darcy. Indeed, we could do nothing but dislike him. To promote this, Jane made his character rude, cold and aloof, in stark contrast to, Elizabeth and Wickham’s, which are warm, witty, and charming. It is only as the story unfolds that we learn of Darcy’s struggles, especially where Wickham and Georgiana are concerned. Only then, does our hearts begin to soften.

The heavy responsibility of a large estate, a young sister to raise, the friend who turns out to be an enemy, not to mention suffering delusional relatives or the dozens of servants and tenant’s that rely on him. His responsibilities are heavy indeed.

Then, as our budding like of Darcy begins to unfold like a flower, he does the most selfless thing imaginable. In rescuing Lydia, and by default all her sister’s, Darcy bind’s himself to his nemesis forever. With this final act of chivalry, Darcy’s transformation is complete, and our hearts are finally won.

Personally, I liked Darcy just the way he is, gorgeous, rich, and a little bit dangerous. (I loved how he dealt with Mrs. Younge and Wickham).

For whatever reason, you like this novel, I would like to think that Jane was sending a message through the media of her book.

Love can cross any divide; we should never give up hope, and real love is worth the wait.

What do you think?

You may find Martine Roberts at these links: Amazon Author Page and Facebook

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Posted in book release, books, eBooks, excerpt, fashion, film, film adaptations, Georgian England, Guest Blog, Guest Post, Jane Austen, Living in the Regency, Living in the UK, love quotes, marriage, Uncategorized | Tagged , , , , , | 12 Comments

A Changing of the Guard…

This is not meant to be a political post, so NO “haters,” please. As an author, I DO NOT discuss politics or religion publicly. Heck, I barely discuss those topics with family and friends, for I consider both quite personal subjects. Therefore, I will delete comments that grow nasty or too opinionated.

We sometimes think that history happens elsewhere, and we merely read about it. But history has a way of extending its finger and etching a line upon our souls. Therefore, this is a quick look back at the U.S. in my near 70 years on this earth, especially from the perspective of my hometown of Huntington, West Virginia. Huntington is a small town of some 70,000 people upon the Ohio River. Like many towns and cities in the United States, it has seen its moments of greatness and of despair.

In my lifetime, I have known thirteen presidents. They were…

33. Harry S. Truman (April 12, 1945—January 20, 1953). Democratic. Democratic. Truman served as President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s third vice president and succeeded him on April 12, 1945, when Roosevelt died less than three months into his fourth term. During his presidency Truman had to deal with many challenges in domestic affairs. He established the Truman Doctrine to contain communism and spoke out against racial discrimination in the armed forces.
(Truman spoke in Huntington, West Virginia, my home town, on October  1, 1948, near the end of a nationwide campaign tour. He spoke from the armor-plated Pullman private car Ferdinand Magellan, which was rebuilt for Roosevelt’s secure use during World War II. Nearly everyone was surprised when Truman defeated New York Gov. Thomas E. Dewey in the November 2 general election. Incidentally, Ken Hechler, who would go on to be a 4th District congressman from West Virginia and West Virginia Secretary of State, worked as one of Truman’s speechwriters for a while. I will admit not to recalling Truman’s presence in Huntington for I was but a year old at the time, but my Aunt Alma assured me I was present.)

34. Dwight D. Eisenhower (January 20, 1953—January 20, 1961). Republican. Before his service as the 34th U.S. President, Eisenhower was a five-star general in the U.S. Army. During WW2 he served as Supreme Commander of Allied forces with responsibility for leading the victorious invasion of France and Germany in 1944 to 1945. His focus as President was to reverse end U.S. neutrality and challenge Communism and corruption. He drafted NASA to compete with the Soviet Union in the space race.
(I recall as a child marching up and down the sidewalk before our house and chanting “I like Ike.” Neither my cousins or I knew much about politics, but we enjoyed the Presidential slogan.
General Dwight D. Eisenhower spoke in Portsmouth, Ohio (on Norfolk and Western Railroad) and Kenova and Huntington (on the Baltimore and Ohio) when his 18-car Look Ahead Neighbor Special stopped at those points on September 24, 1952. His talk in Huntington came from the rear platform of New York Central business car 17.
Eisenhower’s body came through Huntington again on the morning of April 1, 1969, en route to burial in Abilene, Kansas. And on the way back from Kansas, when the train stopped to change crews in Huntington on April 4. Mamie Eisenhower came out on the rear platform of the AT&SF Railway private car Santa Fe to thank people for their concern and sympathy.)

35. John F. Kennedy (January 20, 1961—November 22, 1963). Democratic. Also known as JFK. At age 43 Kennedy was the second youngest president ever when elected, after Theodore Roosevelt. JFK was the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize and the only Catholic president. Events that happened during Kennedy’s presidency included the building of the Berlin Wall, the Cuban missile crisis, the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the early Vietnam War, the Space Race, and the African American Civil Rights Movement.
(Ironically, I was in American history class when the school announced that Kennedy was shot in Dallas. We were devastated. My small town rolled up the streets. We all went home to grieve for the man. He was a Presidential candidate to come to my home state of West Virginia to campaign. There are images of him in the coal fields of the mountainous states. A whole scene in Homer Hickam’s best-selling novel Rocket Boys, later turned into the movie October Sky, was based on that experience.)

36. Lyndon B. Johnson (November 22, 1963—January 20, 1969). Democratic. President Lyndon Johnson was one in four presidents to have served in all four federal offices of the U.S. government (President, Vice President, Representative, and Senator). He was well known for his domestic policies, including civil rights, Medicaid, Medicare, Public Broadcasting, the “War on Poverty,” educational aids, and environmental protection. However, his foreign strategy with the Vietnam War dragged his popularity.

(Johnson’s escalation of the Vietnam War marked my generation. Friends and family went to fight in a country few of us could locate on a map. The experience scarred us, but made us stronger in so many ways.)
37. Richard Nixon (January 20, 1969—August 9, 1974). Republican. President Nixon was the only president to resign from office. His presidency involved improvement of relations with the People’s Republic of China, the ending of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, and the achievement of détente with the Soviet Union. Nixon’s second term was riddled with controversy of the Watergate scandal.
(Many will think me a bit crazy, but I can honestly say I felt safer during Nixon’s presidency than at many times in my life from a worldwide standpoint, for he had served the U.S. as Eisenhower’s advocate to the world. He had dealt with many of the world’s leaders as Eisenhower’s Vice President. We simply remember him for his resignation, but we should also know that Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft.  He initiated détente and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty  with the Soviet Union. His administration generally transferred power from Washington to the states. He enforced desegregation of Southern schools.)

38. Gerald Ford (August 9, 1974—January 20, 1977). Republican. Ford was assigned vice president when Spiro Agnew resigned during Richard Nixon’s administration. When Nixon resigned, Ford became president. While in office Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, easing relations during the Cold War. Involvement in Vietnam essentially ended not long after he became president when North Vietnam defeated South Vietnam. The economy was the worst since the Great Depression while he was in office. He also granted a presidential pardon to President Richard Nixon for the Watergate scandal, which drew controversy towards his name. He is credited with helping to restore public confidence in government after the disillusionment of the Watergate era. Ford understood that his decision to pardon Nixon could have political consequences, and it probably cost him the presidency in 1976. That year, he lost a close election to Democrat Jimmy Carter. Ford took the loss in stride, however, telling friends that he had planned to retire from Congress that year anyway. He viewed his brief tenure in the Oval Office as an unexpected bonus at the end of a long career in politics. Ford often said that he was pleased to have had the opportunity to help the nation emerge from the shadow of Watergate.
(As a teacher with a several degrees as a reading specialist, Ford impacted my life when he signed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, which established special education throughout the United States. I began my teaching experience as a special education teacher in an ESEA [Elementary and Secondary Education] Title I program. I also recall sitting in gasoline lines in 1973. Do any of you hold this memory?)

39. Jimmy Carter (January 20, 1977—January 20, 1981). Democratic. Carter was the 39th President of the U.S. and the only to receive a Nobel Peace Prize (in 2002) after leaving office. As president, he created two new cabinet departments: the Department of Education and the Department of Energy. The end of his term saw the Iran hostage crisis and the failure of its major rescue operation, resulting in the deaths of eight American servicemen, one Iranian civilian, and the destruction of two aircraft, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident, the 1979 energy crisis, and the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.
(I recall how he boycotted the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and how he espoused a process of bureaucratic streamlining and was responsible for deregulating the airline, trucking, rail, communications, and finance industries.
To understand the magnitude of change we have witnessed in the last 20 years or so, remember that in 1980 the Interstate Commerce Commission regulated both trucking and the railroads. “Ma Bell” had a nationwide monopoly in which long distance calls came through copper wires, each strand with the capacity of carrying 15 calls. (A single fiber optic line in use today can carry 2 million calls.)

Airlines had been “deregulated” for only two years. Government controlled the pricing and allocation of oil in the United States. “Regulation Q” and other restrictions on banks and financial institutions kept capital formation in the doldrums. Another way of putting it was that many sectors of this economy were more socialistic then than they are now.Carter’s administration played a large part in many of the deregulation efforts.)

40. Ronald Reagan (January 20, 1981—January 20, 1989). Republican. Prior to becoming a politician Ronald Reagan had been a radio broadcaster and actor. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in sociology and economics. As president, Reagan implemented new economic policies that became known as “Reaganomics.”
(He advocated tax rate reduction to spur economic growth, control of the money supply to curb inflation, economic deregulation, and reduction in government spending.The tax cuts  were signed in August of 1981. These enactments were a major reduction in domestic expenditures and the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981, were designed to lower federal revenues over a five year period in the amount of $737 billion. Secondly, he advocated the reduction of nuclear arms with the signing of the INF treaty together with Mikhail Gorbachev on December 8, 1987. This treaty eliminated all cruise missiles with a range of 500 to 5,000 kilometers. “Tear down this wall!” is a line from a speech made by Reagan in West Berlin on June 12, 1987, calling for the leader of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, to open up the barrier which had divided West and East Berlin since 1961.

In his first term Reagan survived an assassination attempt, which scared the “Bejesus” out of the county after what happened to Kennedy.)
41. George H. W. Bush (January 20, 1989—January 20, 1993). Republican. Before becoming the 41st President of the U.S., George H. W. Bush served as the 43rd Vice President, an ambassador, a congressman, and Director of Central Intelligence. He served as a U.S. Navy aviator during World War II. After the war he attended and graduated from Yale in 1948. He went into the oil business and became a millionaire by age 40.
(By this time, presidents and presidential candidates were spending more time in the air than on the rails. But George H.W. Bush (“Bush 41”) broke with the new tradition and rode a 19-car campaign train from Columbus, Ohio, to Plymouth, Michigan, on Sept. 26, 1992, and Plymouth to Grand Blanc, Michigan, on Sept. 27. The train, which was assembled in Huntington, was pulled by two of CSX Transportation’s month-old locomotives, 7812 and 7810. The lead unit was all decked out in a patriotic red, white, blue and yellow scheme that included American flags on its flanks and a phony number, 1992. Reserved for the president’s use was CSX business car Baltimore, and protective trains preceded and followed the POTUS train.)

42. Bill Clinton (January 20, 1993—January 20, 2001). Democratic. Clinton was elected into office at 46, making him the 3rd youngest president. He was the first president of the baby boomer generation. He graduated from Yale Law School. Clinton was involved in a scandal with a White House intern, which nearly got him impeached. Despite that, his work as president earned him the highest approval rating of any president since World War II.
(On August 25, 1996,  Bill Clinton rode Amtrak’s 13-car Twenty-First Century Express from Huntington to Michigan City, Indiana, to convince Americans that the country was “on the right track to the 21st century” and to accept his party’s nomination for a second term at the Democratic National Convention meeting in Chicago in 1996. His private car was the Georgia 300, owned by Fernandina Beach, Florida, mortician Jack Heard. Locally, Clinton spoke in Huntington and Ashland; Billy Ray Cyrus sang the national anthem at the latter stop. Interestingly, another route through Pittsburgh was considered that would have avoided Huntington, but Dick Morris, in his book Rewriting History, says Hillary Clinton herself nixed it.
“She warned that the Secret Service ‘will shut down the entire Eastern Seaboard just to embarrass us,'” Morris quoted Clinton’s wife as saying. “‘They’re mostly Republicans. They hate us. They always take the most extreme option just to cause us embarrassment. We enter a city, and they close down all traffic. We can’t go to Pittsburgh!'”)

43. George W. Bush (January 20, 2001—January 20, 2009). Republican. Bush graduated from Yale in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975, working in oil businesses after. Bush advocated policies on health care, the economy, social security reform, and education. In 2005 Bush was criticized for his administration’s handling of Hurricane Katrina. With the combination of dissatisfaction with the Iraq War and the longest post-World War II recession in December 2007, Bush’s popularity declined sharply.
(George W. Bush and running mate Dick Cheney campaigned in several states by rail in 2000, but when Bush campaigned in Huntington, he came by air and stayed overnight at the Radisson Hotel Huntington, now the Pullman Plaza Hotel.}

44. Barack Obama (January 20, 2009—???). Democratic. Obama was the first African American U.S. president. He was previously a U.S. Senator from Illinois. He was born in Honolulu, Hawaii. He graduated from Columbia University and Harvard Law School. He will be remembered for Obama Care and some not so popular foreign affairs. His legacy is yet to be named. 

Donald_Trump_August_19,_2015_(cropped).jpg 45. Donald J. Trump (June 14, 1946 — ???} Republican. Trump is an American businessman, politician, and television personality. He is President of the U.S. as of today. His legacy, like Obama’s, is yet to be defined. Trump won the general election on November 8, 2016, gaining a majority of electoral college  votes, while receiving a smaller share of the popular vote nationwide than Democratic rival Hillary Clinton.  At age 70, Trump will become the oldest and the wealthiest person to assume the presidency, and the first without prior military  and the first without either prior military or governmental service.

Resources:  
Except for Mr. Trump’s the bios listed above come from Totally History. The first 44 Presidents may be found at this site. My comments are in parentheses.

The tidbits regarding train travel for the Presidents comes from Bob Withers, a retired Herald-Dispatch reporter and copy editor who pastors Seventh Avenue Baptist Church in Huntington. Much of the background information about local presidential visits comes from his first book, “The President Travels by Rail: Politics and Pullmans” (1996, Lynchburg, Virginia: TLC Publishing Inc.), which is now out of print.

 

Posted in American History, Uncategorized | Tagged , , | 6 Comments

John Spilsbury and the First Jigsaw Puzzle

dbd0c215-2dbe-4e27-b936-bd217f200f35_1.6379472f2e78388594f84fc46c0554d5.jpeg Okay, over Christmas I gave and received several jigsaw puzzles. I do puzzles on my Kindle Fire every evening. The presents I gave were those personalized puzzles where a person receives a puzzle of his or her hometown or community based on Google maps. I received a 3D one of London. With over 1200 pieces, it will take me a good long while…at least, I hope so. 

220px-Richard_Baxter_by_Riley.jpg All this got me thinking of John Spilsbury (1739 – 3 April 1769), a British mapmaker and engraver, who is credited as the inventor of the jigsaw puzzle. Spilbury was the second of three sons of Thomas Spilsbury; the engraver Jonathan Spilsbury was his elder brother,  and the two have sometimes been confused. [Can you imagine naming your children Johnathan and John? Shades of George Foreman…] The younger Spilsbury served as an apprentice to Thomas Jefferys, the Royal Geographer to King George III.

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According to the repeated tale, Spilsbury created the first puzzle in 1767 as an educational tool to teach geography. He affixed a world map to wood and carved each country out to create the first puzzle. Later, he created puzzles on eight themes – the World, Europe, Asia, Africa, America, England and Wales, Ireland and Scotland.

Spilsbury married Sarah May of Newmarket, Suffolk in 1761. After his death she ran his business for a period before marrying Harry Ashby, who had been apprentice to Spilsbury and who continued to sell puzzles.

 

imagesIt is not ironic that the “dissected map” remains a favorite puzzle today. My grandkids have one of those wooden puzzles with the U. S. States, and my personalized puzzle gifts were based on maps.

Puzzles for adults came onto the market in the early 1900s. Early puzzles had pieces cut exactly upon the color lines. From “History of Puzzles” on About.com, we learn, “There were no transition pieces with two colors to signal, for example, that the brown area (roof) fit next to the blues (sky). A sneeze or a careless move could undo an evening’s work because the pieces did not interlock. And unlike children’s puzzles, the adult puzzles had no guide picture on the box; if the title was vague or misleading, the true subject could remain a mystery until the last pieces were fitted into place.”

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In the beginning, puzzles were expensive to own. The pieces were cut one by one. It could cost up to $5 for a 500-piece puzzle in 1908 when the average household saw a monthly income of $50. Also, early puzzles had no picture on the box to follow to know what the image should be.

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Parker Brothers’ United States Puzzle Map. Made in Salem, Massachusetts by Parker Brothers in 1915 or later.

 Two significant innovations occurred in the early 1900s. First, Parker Brothers® introduced figure pieces, which made puzzles easier to assemble, into its ‘Pastime’ brand puzzles. Pieces shaped like dogs, birds, and other recognizable objects did not take away from the experience of putting the puzzle together. Second, Pastimes and other brands developed interlocking pieces, reducing the possibility of spilling or losing pieces. Pastime® puzzles were so successful that Parker Brothers stopped making games and devoted its entire factory to puzzle production in 1909. 

By 1933, sales of puzzles for adults reached 10 million per week. Puzzles were a popular form of entertainment during the Great Depression. During the 1930s, home craftsmen made their own puzzles and public libraries added puzzles to their lending libraries.

Die-cut cardboard puzzles for adults became more popular when the combination of mass production and inexpensive cardboard allowed the manufactures to cut prices substantially. In the early 1830s, retail stores offered free puzzles, which were an early form of product placement, with the purchase of a toothbrush, a flashlight, or hundreds of other products.

In 1932, people could purchase a weekly jigsaw puzzle each Wednesday from their local new stands. These were very popular. There were dozens of weekly series and the inexpensive puzzles cut into the marketplace for those who still made puzzles by hand. Yet the top quality brands like Parker Pastimes retained a loyal following throughout the Depression, despite their higher prices.

A pair of savvy businessmen, Frank Ware and John Henriques, marketed their hand cut puzzles to movie stars and others of affluence. Their customized puzzled were designed to meet the buyer’s unique wishes – a birthdate or a person’s name. Ware and Henriques’s puzzles were designed with irregular edges, which frustrated those who used the straight edges to form a frame for the final product. They also published their “Par Times” for Par Puzzles. Those who put the puzzles together competed to beat the “par” times.

After WWII, Springbok introduced fine art jigsaw puzzles. I recall trying to put together Jackson Pollock’s ‘Convergence,’ billed by Springbok as ‘the world’s most difficult jigsaw puzzle.'” Even so, sales of most puzzles dropped, and die-cut cardboard puzzles replaced the hand cut wooden ones. Parker Brothers’ Pastime puzzles were no more by 1958. The exclusive Par puzzles could not be purchased after the early 1970s. The English ‘Victory’ puzzles, easily found in department stores in the 1950s and 1960s, almost completely vanished.

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Further reading: Cutting borders: Dissected maps and the origins of the jigsaw puzzle. An article written by Martin Norgate and published in 2007 in Cartographic Journal, volume 44 number 4 on pages 342-350.

History of Puzzles 

Jigsaw Puzzles – A Brief History: From the 1760s to Modern Day Puzzle Makers 

The Puzzle Instinct: The Meaning of Puzzles in Human Life by Marcel Danes (Google Book)

Posted in American History, British history, family, Great Britain, toys and games, Uncategorized | Tagged , , , , , | 6 Comments

Introducing Georgina Young-Ellis, Fellow Austen Author

My Journey to JAFF

By Georgina Young-Ellis

imgresWe all have our own moment, the one in which we said to ourselves, “I’m hooked.” Like many other Jane Austen fans, I can safely say it was the moment I read the first sentence of Pride and Prejudice. For others, it may have been a different instance altogether, or it might have taken longer for the journey. There are plenty of people, however, who look at me oddly when I profess to being a Jane Austen fanatic, responding with: “I read Pride and Prejudice in school but I don’t remember it.” I often just stare blankly back at these people until I remember to say something polite in return, because, what I’m really thinking is: Don’t remember it? How could you not remember something that has such an impact on so many? And why did it not have an impact on you? What is wrong with you? I feel sorry for these people because mayhap they simply had a bad English teacher that caused such a masterpiece to fade to the back of their memories.

The fact is, I started reading Austen in my early twenties, which was, I hate to admit, quite a long time ago, when, in America at least, it seemed Austen fanatics were a clandestine group who stumbled upon each other by accident, joyously sharing their insights on Austen’s work, and then creeping back into the shadows again. We possessed only very dated movie versions of Jane’s books, and no internet with which to share our rabid love.

When the 1995 BBC Pride and Prejudice miniseries was released, everything seemed to change. It was followed in quick succession by Ang Lee’s Sense and Sensibility, Roger Michell’s Persuasion, Clueless—a darling retelling of Emma; Emma itself with Gwyneth Paltrow, as well as the TV miniseries of Emma with Kate Beckinsale, and Mansfield Park with Francis O’Conner. I think those who didn’t consider themselves Jane Austen fans before had their heads turned with these great film portrayals and, perhaps, the films made people go back and read the books. Then Bridget Jones’ Diary stormed the scene and suddenly, women were fangirl-ing their heads off about Pride and Prejudice. I didn’t even know fan fiction existed before Bridget Jones, but now I realize that book was my first foray into it. And I liked it, but I was still unaware that there was an underground movement of JAFF authors growing already.

Now that I am ensconced in the reading and writing of JAFF, I actually have something to confess. I kind of miss the time when it was a rare surprise to come across a kindred spirit with whom I could hungrily discuss Jane Austen: the merits of Persuasion as opposed to Mansfield Park for example, or Northanger Abbey versus Sense and Sensibility. These discussions were about more than which hero was hotter: Mr. Darcy, Mr. Knightley, or Captain Wentworth or which villain was more dastardly: Wickham or Willoughby. They were serious conversations of the plots, the characters, and the prose. I’ll never forget when I told a staunch Jane scholar my favorite of Austen’s novels was Northanger Abbey, and her telling me how “immature” a choice that was. Though I disagreed with her, it made me go back and read, and reread again, all the novels, eventually admitting that Pride and Prejudice was probably the most well composed, though I still maintain that Northanger Abbey is the most amusing. My favorite now though is Persuasion, which, to me, is the most heart-wrenching, while also so satisfyingly romantic.

Do I wish the Austen fervor would die down? Of course not. It’s thrilling to see how many readers around the world have embraced “my” Jane. And certainly, she has been one of the most revered, if not always as popular, writers in the English language for a couple of centuries now. So, no, I don’t begrudge the world its love of Austen, I just miss the days when I could consider her, more or less, my own. Anyway, read on, JAFF lovers! I’ve willingly joined your ranks! Just remember to go back to her sometimes, and revel in those original words, written by the mistress herself, that started the whole thing.

31wo7zkaeyl-_ux250_Interested in Knowing More of Georgina…

Author Bio: Georgina Young-Ellis lives in Portland, Oregon, a magical place full of inspiration for a writer. She has a rock star son, and a wonderful husband who is her own personal cheering section. Georgina writes romantic, time travel fiction, and has four books available in my Time Mistress Series: The Time Baroness, which takes place in Regency England; The Time Heiress, a journey to pre-Civil War New York City; The Time Contessa, set in Renaissance Italy; and The Time Duchess, an adventure to Elizabethan England. She also has the Elizabeth, Darcy and Me Series, which includes Elizabeth, Darcy & Me and the upcoming Elizabeth, Darcy & Me: The Quarrel. 

51yuqgfvjl-_uy250_Social Media Links:

Website, featuring the Time Mistress Series and the Elizabeth, Darcy & Me Series 

Blog: Nerd Girl Romantics

Facebook           Amazon Author Page         Twitter

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Ever Been on a “Cook’s Tour”?

Most of you are likely to think a “cook’s tour” has something to do with a chef’s culinary excellence, but the phrase actually has its roots in the world’s oldest and largest travel organization. 

Thomas.Cook-pic-682x1024.jpg Thomas Cook was a 32-year old cabinet maker by trade and a strong proponent of the temperance movement. One day in June 1841, he walked from his home in Market Harborough to the nearby town of Leicester to attend a “dry” meeting. A former Baptist preacher, Thomas Cook was a religious man who believed that most Victorian social problems were related to alcohol and that the lives of working people would be greatly improved if they drank less and became better educated. On the way, he passed a billboard poster announcing that the Midlands County Railway had opened a rail extension between Loughborough and Leicester. Thomas concocted an idea that the steam engine could be profitably harnessed to the temperance cause; therefore, he persuaded the railroad company to reduce the fare in return to his guarantee of 500 passengers to travel the newly opened rail extension, which customarily served only one-tenth that number. 

At the meeting, Thomas suggested that a special train be engaged to carry the temperance supporters of Leicester to a meeting in Loughborough about four weeks later. The proposal was received with such enthusiasm that, on the following day, Thomas submitted his idea to the secretary of the Midland Railway Company. A train was subsequently arranged, and on 5 July 1841, 570 passengers were conveyed in open carriages the enormous distance of 12 miles and back for a shilling. [Some sources say the cost was 14 cents for a round-trip of 48 miles.] The day was a great success and, as Thomas later recorded, ‘thus was struck the keynote of my excursions, and the social idea grew upon me’. 

Other societies soon solicited the travel “guide” to arrange their excursions. During the next three summers Thomas arranged a succession of trips between Leicester, Nottingham, Derby and Birmingham on behalf of local temperance societies and Sunday schools. He even organized tours to the “wilds” of Scotland. Within these limits many thousands of people experienced rail travel for the first time, and Thomas was able to lay the foundations of his future business. He later described this period as one of ‘enthusiastic philanthropy’ since, beyond the printing of posters and handbills, he had no financial interest in any of these early excursions.

Thomas Cook’s first commercial venture took place in the summer of 1845, when he organised a trip to Liverpool. This was a far more ambitious project than anything he had previously attempted, and he made his preparations with great thoroughness. Not content with simply providing tickets at low prices – 15 shillings for first-class passengers and 10 shillings for second. Thomas also investigated the route and published a handbook of the journey. This 60-page booklet was a forerunner of the modern holiday brochure.

By the end of 1850, having already visited Wales, Scotland and Ireland, Thomas Cook began to contemplate foreign trips to Europe, the United States and the Holy Land. Such thoughts had to be postponed, however, when Sir Joseph Paxton, architect of the Crystal Palace, persuaded Thomas to devote himself to bringing workers from Yorkshire and the Midlands to London for the Great Exhibition of 1851. This he did with great enthusiasm, rarely spending a night at home between June and October, and he even produced a newspaper, Cook’s Exhibition Herald and Excursion Advertiser, in order to promote his tours. By the end of the season Thomas had taken 165,000 people to London, his final trains to the Exhibition carrying 3,000 children from Leicester, Nottingham and Derby.

Thomas continued to expand his business in Britain, but he was determined to develop it in Europe too. In 1855 an International Exhibition was held in Paris for the first time and Thomas seized this opportunity by trying to persuade the companies commanding the Channel traffic to allow him concessions. They refused to work with him, however, and the only route he was able to use was the one between Harwich and Antwerp. This opened up the way for a grand circular tour to include Brussels, Cologne, the Rhine, Heidelberg, Baden-Baden, Strasbourg and Paris, returning to London via Le Havre or Dieppe. By this route, during the summer of 1855, Thomas escorted his first tourists to Europe.

In those days, a visit to a foreign country was a major undertaking. Crowds of relatives would gather to see their relatives off. Cook’s “tour escorts” led the adventure-minded little groups through strange places and gave a running commentary on every town, statue, etc. The descriptions presented to the “tourists” even became famous. Cook’s fame rose quickly. Therefore, to take any type of pleasure journey was the same as saying you were going on a “Cook’s tour.” 

Resources: 

Derbyshire UK 

Thomas Cook History 

Thomas Cook, Wikipedia 

Travel History: The Tale of Thomas Cook 

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Posted in British history, commerce, Great Britain, Industrial Revolution, Living in the UK, real life tales, Victorian era | Tagged , , , , , , , , | 4 Comments

Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, a Disappointment to Queen Victoria

Given Queen Victoria and Prince Albert’s physical infatuation with each other, their first child, Princess Victoria, called Vicky, was born nine months after their wedding. The queen was busy with her duties as monarch and could spare little time for her baby, seeing her only twice a day. Within a year of Vicky’s birth Albert Edward, known as Bertie – the future King Edward VII – was born. The queen now had a healthy male heir. “Our little boy is a wonderfully strong and large child,” she wrote proudly. “I hope and pray he may be like his dearest Papa.”  With the succession reasonably assured, it might be thought a rest from the risk of childbearing would be appropriate. Not so. Over the next five years another three children were born: Alice, Alfred and Helena.

“While Queen Victoria gave birth to many children, she did not necessarily like babies. “An ugly baby is a very nasty object,” she protested, “the prettiest are frightful when undressed… as long as they have their big body and little limbs and that terrible froglike action”. Nor could she contemplate breastfeeding them, finding the whole process repulsive. A wet nurse was therefore employed for all her children, as Victoria devoted herself to Albert. The result was four more children: Louise, Arthur, Leopold and Beatrice. Victoria had nine babies over 17 years – a tremendous physical feat, and a dangerous one given the high rates of maternal mortality at the time.” (History Extra)

Victoria turned over the children to Albert while she continued on with her regal duties. Albert, a product of an intense German education, expected much of his children. Sometimes too much. There were lessons in languages, especially French and German, along with mathematics, science, Latin, geography, and music. These were mixed with corporal punishment for not performing to expectations. Fortunately for Vicky, she was quite bright. Some of the other prince and princesses were less so. Victoria idolized Albert and often told her children “none of you can ever be proud enough of being the child of such a father who has not his equal in this world.” She wished for her sons to be mini-Alberts, molded in their father’s image. 

Unfortunately, for their eldest son, Albert Edward, known as “Bertie,” such aspirations knew constant failure. From an early age Bertie obstinately refused to conform to his father’s plan for the royal children’s education. Here was no renaissance prince in the making: despite being stuffed with facts and theory, he found learning difficult and was unable to concentrate.  The intense pressure on the backward young prince produced a negative reaction. History Extra tells us, “Albert’s plan for the heir to the throne of the greatest empire the world had ever seen turned out a complete failure. Instead of the longed for polymath his son turned out to be a dunce.  Victoria complained about his ‘systematic idleness, laziness – disregard of everything.’ The worried parents consulted a phrenologist, a modish quack who claimed the shape of the head affected the brain. His diagnosis confirmed everything they feared: ‘The feeble quality of the brain will render the Prince highly excitable… intellectual organs are only moderately well developed. The result will be strong self-will, at times obstinacy.'”

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Edward VII’s Coronation portrait by Sir Luke Fildes via Wikipedia

Dynastic duty was a priority for Prince Albert. After arranging the marriage of Victoria, Princess Royal to the Prussian court, Albert turned his attention to Bertie and Alice. As Albert’s duties increased, his queen often complained of his deteriorating health and his excessive attention to their children. In 1860, Albert arranged a marriage between Bertie and Princess Alexandra of Denmark. Always aware of the royal family’s public image the betrothal was portrayed as a love match. The Victorian public, in an era of pious rectitude, demanded a pure marriage in which the heir to the throne appeared to be virtuous and chaste.

However, Bertie was far from chaste. He was a man who devoted his life to pleasure. He often had others arrange trysts for him. “In the summer of 1861 Bertie attended a training camp with Grenadier Guards in Dublin. His fellow officers arranged for a ‘lady of easy virtue’ to join him for the night. The story of the prince’s trysts got back to his parents and provoked in Albert a furious, almost hysterical, response. How could his son, he demanded, ‘thrust yourself into the hands of one of the most abject of the human species, to be by her initiated in the sacred mysteries of creation?’ Everything that Albert had been working for seemed threatened. He warned Bertie that ‘you must not, you dare not be lost; the consequences for this country and the world at large would be too dreadful.'”

Frustrated by his son’s actions, Albert made the journey to Cambridge to ring the peal over Bertie’s head. It was a rainy day, but Albert and Bertie walked in the rain while discussing the expectations of being the Prince of Wales. Albert returned to Windsor after securing an apology from his son, but he was soaked through. Soon he ran a fever, and he took to his bed. Prince Albert never recovered. He passed at the age of 42. Queen Victoria’s grief was extreme. It marked the rest of her life. She blamed her “foolish” son for his father’s death. For years she barely could tolerate being in the same room with him. 

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Edward and Alexandra on their wedding day, 1863 via Wikipedia

So great was Victoria’s disappointment in her eldest son that after Albert’s death she excluded Bertie from all but the most ordinary and insignificant social duties. Although she insisted that Albert Edward would always be afforded the highest respect for his position as her heir, she never shared the ins and outs of the running of the kingdom with him. 

Resources:

Prince Albert: The death that rocked the monarchy

Queen Victoria adored Prince Albert so much it made her loathe her nine children

Queen Victoria: The real story of her ‘domestic bliss’

Queen Victoria’s Children 

 

Posted in British history, Church of England, family, Great Britain, marriage, royalty, Victorian era | Tagged , , , , , , | 9 Comments

Court of Star Chamber During Henry VII’s Reign

Court of Star Chamber is, in English law, the court made up of judges and privy councillors that grew from the medieval king’s council as a supplement to the regular justice of the common-law courts. The room was so named for stars were painted upon the ceiling. 

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Cardinal John Morton

 When Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, became Henry VII after his defeat of Richard III’s army at the battle of Bosworth Field, he did one of the smartest things of his reign. Henry was not educated for he spent much of youth in Wales and his adulthood in exile in Brittany. He was not afforded the type of education he would require as King of England. Realizing his deficiencies, Henry surrounded himself with competent advisors. His most learned consultant was Cardinal John Morton. He succeeded Bourchier as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1486 and Alcock as Lord Chancellor in 1487; and he was responsible for much of the diplomatic, if not also of the financial, work of the reign, though the ingenious method of extortion popularly known as “Morton’s fork” seems really to have been the invention of Richard Fox, who succeeded to a large part of Morton’s influence. Morton no doubt impressed Lancastrian traditions upon Henry VII, but he cannot be credited with any great originality as a statesman, and Henry’s policy was as much Yorkist as Lancastrian. The fact that parliament continued to meet fairly often so long as Morton lived, and was only summoned once by Henry VII after the Archbishop’s death, may have some significance; but more probably it was simply due to the circumstance that Morton’s death synchronized with Henry’s achievement of a security in which he thought he could almost dispense with parliamentary support and supplies.

henry7During Henry’s reign, the king was served by some 200 councillors from both the Lancastrian and Yorkist facets. His advisors included noblemen, men of law, men of religion, and those of the gentry. They gathered with the King in the Court of the Star Chamber at Westminster Palace. The men Henry VII had gathered dispatched cases of law involving those with specific grievances against one of the nobility. Sessions known as Requests were also conducted there. In these, the poor could pursue their grievances. Encyclopedia Britannica says, “Finding its support from the king’s prerogative (sovereign power and privileges) and not bound by the common law, Star Chamber’s procedures gave it considerable advantages over the ordinary courts. It was less bound by rigid form; it did not depend upon juries either for indictment or for verdict; it could act upon the petition of an individual complainant or upon information received; it could put an accused person on oath to answer the petitioner’s bill and reply to detailed questions. On the other hand, its methods lacked the safeguards that common-law procedures provided for the liberty of the subject. Parliaments in the 14th and 15th centuries, while recognizing the occasional need for and usefulness of those methods, attempted to limit their use to causes beyond the scope or power of the ordinary court.” 

Star Chamber weakened baronial power, a fact that Cardinal Thomas Wosley used to the Crown’s benefit. It was during Wosley’s chancellorship (1515–29) that the judicial activity of Star Chamber grew. In addition to prosecuting riot and such crimes, Wolsey used the court with increased vigour against perjury, slander, forgery, fraud, offenses against legislation and the king’s proclamations, and any action that could be considered a breach of the peace. Wolsey also encouraged those with grievances to appeal to it in the first instance, not after they had failed to find an efficient remedy in the ordinary courts.

The Star Chamber also became a source of revenue. One of the major issues that Henry VII had to deal with was retaining. Retaining was a problem that had haunted kings for some time and was sometimes referred to as livery or maintenance. Livery was the giving of a uniform or badge to a follower and maintenance was the protection of a retainer’s interests. By allowing retaining a king could all but guarantee social stability in his kingdom. Retaining also served another purpose – the king frequently needed a large army at short notice to fight foreign campaigns and retaining effectively allowed a king to gather around him a sizable number of trained men at short notice. However, retaining also had one obvious weakness. There was always the chance that one nobleman or several grouped together would become more powerful than the king. This was something that Henry VII was not willing to tolerate or risk. Edward IV had legislation passed in 1468 that outlawed retaining except in the cases of domestic servants, estate officials and legal advisers. However, the law was effectively ignored and it also had a major weakness contained within it – it allowed retaining for ‘lawful service’. Therefore lords continued to maintain their retinues claiming that the men in them were for ‘lawful service’. Therefore, these retainers continued to provide a possible threat to the king.

The number of retainers fell as his reign progressed. Evidence suggests that certain magnates such as Buckingham and Northumberland got around this by employing more men to work on their estates than was really necessary. However, both men covered their tracks well and no evidence was found by Henry or his supporters to support this. Those who did break the law and were caught were fined. In 1506, Lord Burgavenny was deemed to have too many retainers for his needs and was fined £5 for every retainer. His fine totalled £70,550 – a huge sum of money then. Henry suspended the sum and held Burgavenny to a promise that he would adhere to the rules. Henry won on two counts – the nobility would have been horrified at the total fine they could pay (using the Burgavenny example) if Henry used the law to its fullest extent and he tied closer to him a noble who had been implicated in the Cornish Rebellion.

Henry treated all the nobles the same with regards to retaining. Whereas Edward IV had allowed those nobles who were closest to him to do as they wished with regards to retaining, Henry did not – as the Earl of Oxford was to find out. Oxford was one of Henry’s closest advisors. When Oxford entertained Henry at his castle at Henningham, the Earl put on a grand finale with all his retainers flanking the royal carriage as it drove out of the estate. Henry asked Oxford who all the people were and Oxford casually informed the king that they were retainers. He was fined £15,000.

Henry VIII used the Star Chamber extensively for it provided the ability to enforce the law when other courts had no power. When, however, it was used by Charles I to enforce unpopular political and ecclesiastical policies, it became a symbol of oppression to the parliamentary and Puritan opponents of Charles and Archbishop William Laud. It was, therefore, abolished by the Long Parliament in 1641. 

Resources: 

History Learning Site 

Luminarium 

Ransom, Cyril. A Short History of England 

St-Hughs

 

Posted in Act of Parliament, British history, Church of England, history, kings and queens, religion, royalty, Tudor | Tagged , , , , , | 2 Comments

Reginald Christie, 10 Rilling Place Serial Killer

john.jpg John Reginald Halliday Christie, known to his family and friends as Reg Christie, was an English serial killer active during the 1940s and early 1950s and is the subject a new film based upon his life of crime. Personally, the 1971 film with Richard Attenborough was creepy enough for me. I do not wish to relive the experience. That being said, what do we know of Reginald Christie? 

Christie was raised in Halifax, then in the West Riding of Yorkshire. He was abused by his father and dominated by his mother and sisters. Christie won a scholarship to Halifax Secondary School when he was 11. He excelled particularly at mathematics and algebra, and was skilled at detailed work. It was later found he had an IQ of 128. He sang in the choir and became a scout, but he was unpopular with his fellow pupils. Upon leaving school in 1913, he worked at various jobs and eventually became an assistant movie projectionist.

By the time he reached puberty, he already associated sex with death, dominance and violent aggression, rendering him impotent unless in complete control. His first attempts at sex were failures, branding him with “ugly” taunts throughout adolescence. He was also a hypochondriac and hysteric, and often exaggerated or feigned illness as a ploy to get attention.

Christie enlisted as a signalman in World War I and was sent to the front in 1918. He was hospitalised after a mustard gas attack, claiming to have been blinded. No record of his supposed blindness exists however; in 10 Rillington Place, author Ludovic Kennedy wrote that Christie exaggerated his blindness, as well as the three-year period afterward in which he was mute.

Christie married 22-year-old Ethel Waddington from Sheffield, on May 10, 1920. It was a dysfunctional union, as Christie was impotent with her and frequented prostitutes. Friends and neighbours gossiped that she stayed with him out of fear. They separated after four years, when Christie moved to London and Ethel lived with relatives.

Over the next decade, Christie was convicted for many petty criminal offences. These included: three months’ imprisonment for stealing postal orders while working as a postman on April 12, 1921; nine months in Uxbridge jail in September 1924 for theft; six months’ hard labour for assaulting a prostitute  with a cricket bat (with whom he was living in Battersea) in May 1929; and three months’ imprisonment in 1933 for stealing a car from a priest who had befriended him.

Christie and his wife reconciled after his release in November 1933. He did not reform, however; he continued to seek out prostitutes to relieve his increasingly violent sexual urges, which included necrophilia. 

In December 1938, Christie and his wife moved into the ground floor apartment of 10 Rillington Place in the Ladbroke Grove neighbourhood of Notting Hill. On the outbreak of World War II, he applied to join the police force and was accepted, and was assigned to Harrow Road police station. Christie began an affair with a woman working at the police station whose husband was a serving soldier. The relationship lasted until December 1943, when he resigned. The husband caught them in bed and beat Christie up.

Christie’s first victim was Ruth Fuerst (August 1943), an Austrian immigrant. He strangled her while he raped her, a marker for several of his crimes to come. His second victim was Muriel Eddy (October 1944), a woman known to him from work. He tricked her into inhaling carbon monoxide by promising to cure her bronchitis with a “special mixture” he had concocted. When she was unconscious, he strangled her and raped her post-mortem. These two victims were buried in the communal garden behind the Rillington Place house. 

The war’s end appears to brought a lull in Christie’s growing need for death and sex. Timothy Evans and his pregnant wife, Beryl, moved into the top-floor flat of 10 Rillington Place in April 1948. On October 10, Beryl gave birth to a daughter, whom they named Geraldine. In November 1949, Beryl Evans found out she was pregnant again, and feared they could not afford another child. Evans later told police that Christie promised the couple he could abort the baby. There are several conflicts versions of how Beryl died. The most likely is that Christie pretended to aid in an abortion. When the gas he gave her did not put her to sleep, Christie knocked her out and then strangled her before again having sex post-mortem. He then murdered their daughter and incriminated Timothy in his family’s deaths. When Evans returned from work that night, Christie told him that Beryl had died during the procedure, and that they had to hide the body (abortion was illegal in England at the time). Christie then convinced Evans to stay with a relative in Wales and leave Geraldine in his care. Evans later said he returned to the apartment several times to ask about Geraldine, but Christie had refused to let him see her.

url.jpg During a search of 10 Rillington Place on December 2, 1949, the police found the bodies of Beryl and Geraldine Evans hidden in the wash house in the back garden. Both had been strangled. When Evans was shown the clothing taken from the bodies of his wife and child, he was also asked whether he was responsible for their deaths. This was, according to Evans’ statement, the first occasion in which he was informed that his baby daughter had been killed. Evans, (according to Kennedy) said ‘yes, yes’. He then confessed to having strangled Beryl during an argument over debts and strangling Geraldine two days later, after which he left for Wales.

Evans later recanted this testimony, and the case went to trial, which began on January 11, 1950. Christie was a key witness for the prosecution, and was instrumental in Evans being found guilty two days later. The jury took only 40 minutes to come to this decision. After a failed appeal on February 20, Evans was hanged on March 9, 1950.

Due to the public exposure of his previous criminal record during the Evans trial, Christie lost his position at the Post Office Savings Bank. Reportedly depressed, he finally found a new position as a clerk at the British Roads Transport service in August 1950. He left that position on December 6, 1952. Christie told everyone he had secured another position in Sheffield, and he and his wife would move there after the first of the year. Three years had passed since his last murder. However, in December 1952, Christie told his neighbors that his wife had gone ahead to set up their household in Sheffield. In truth, he had killed her  on the night of December 14 and buried her beneath the house’s floorboards. He covered his wife’s absence by writing letters to her sister saying that Ethel had rheumatism in her hands and could not pen the letters on her own. During this time, he sold his wife’s wedding band, engagement ring, and watch. 

On January 8, 1953, Christie sold most of his furniture. He kept three chairs, a kitchen table and a mattress to sleep on. On February 2, he forged his wife’s signature on her bank account and emptied it. After early February, Christie no longer bothered to answer the letters from relatives inquiring after his wife. Between January 19 and March 6, 1953, Christie murdered three more women he invited back to 10 Rillington Place: Kathleen Maloney from Southampton, Rita Nelson, and Hectorina MacLennan. He gassed, raped and strangled each, boarding up their bodies in the cupboard. With no money left upon which to live, Christie simply walks away from the house and lives upon the streets and in public shelters. 

The new tenant at 10 Rilling Place discovered the bodies in the wardrobe. Police were summoned, and the other bodies were uncovered. Christie was soon arrested. In custody, he confessed his crimes (except for the death of the infant Geraldine). His defense pleaded insanity, but the jury still found Christie guilty. He was hanged on 15 July 1953. 

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The BBC mini-series, starring Tim Roth and Samantha Morton as the Christies, began November 29 and continued on December 6 and 13. Did you watch? 

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Resources:

Crime Histories 

Murderpedia (The main source used for this piece.)

Radiotimes

Why did the BBC make a new drama about serial killer John Christie? New Statesman

Wikipedia 

Posted in British history, film, Great Britain, history | Tagged , , , | 8 Comments