Trivia Facts about Christmas

Posted on December 19, 2012 by Regina Jeffers

**Bing Crosby and Danny Kaye starred in 1954’s White Christmas. But did you know that the movie was the first one to be made in Vista Vision?
**The Philippines celebrated Christmas as long ago as 1280-1320 A.D. That was 200 years before Ferdinand Magellan discovered the country.
**A choirmaster at Cologne Cathedral was the first to shape candy canes with a “shepherd’s crook.” At that time, canes were plain white sugar candy. It was the 20th century before anyone added the stripes.
**Charles Dickens’s originally planned for Scrooge to say “Bah Christmas.”
**Frankincense was burned by the Romans on their altars and at cremations. It was a valuable resin and was very costly. It is a sweet smelling gum resin from Boswellia trees. Frankincense was presented to the Christ Child by the black king, Balthasar.
**Oklahoma was the last U.S. state to declare Christmas a legal holiday. That happened in 1947.
**Dutch children receive gifts left in shoes rather than to hang Christmas stockings. The gifts are received any time between mid-November and December 5, which is St. Nicholas’s birthday.
**The American version of a stable is wooden. However, if one studies the Biblical time period, he would realize that it was likely that Jesus Christ was born in a cave rather than a wooden stable. Caves were used to keep animals out of the intense heat of that area of the world. In fact, a large church is now built around the cave. People can go down inside the cave to see the reported scene.
** “Silent Night” was written in 1818 by an Austrian priest Joseph Mohr. The church organ was in disrepair, and Mohr did not want the ceremony to have no music. So, he composed three stanzas which could be sung by the choir to guitar music.
**”The Twelve Days of Christmas” was written to help Catholic children, in England, to remember different articles of faith during the persecution by Protestant Monarchs. The “true love” is God.
“Partridge in a pear tree” = Christ
2 Turtle Doves = Old and New Testament
3 French Hens = Faith, Hope, and Charity (Theological Virtues)
4 Calling Birds = the Four Gospels
5 Golden Rings = The “Pentateuch”
6 Geese A-Laying = the days of the Creation
7 Swans A-Swimming = the seven sacraments
9 Maids A-Milking = the eight beatitudes
10 Lords A-Leaping = the Ten Commandments
11 Pipers Piping = eleven apostles who remained faithful
12 Drummers Drumming = the twelve point of doctrine in the Apostle’s Creed

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Regency Era Lexicon – And Then There Was “T”

Posted on December 18, 2012 by Regina Jeffers

take orders – becoming a clergyman in the Church of England

take silks – a barrister would wear a silk gown once he became the King’s Counsel (or the Queen’s Counsel)

tallow – fat from oxen or sheep, which was used to make soap and candles

tambour – a hoop filled with material; used for embroidery work

tandem – a team of two horses harnessed one behind the other, rather than side by side

tanner – slang for a sixpence

taproom – an inn’s room where ordinary laborers were served (as opposed to a private parlor for the genteel sect)

tea caddy – a box that held tea

teapoy – a 3-legged stand used for serving tea

Tea Room – located in the Bath assembly rooms; one could take tea in the room, but it was also used for concerts

tea service – in contrast to the suppers served at private balls, at assemblies or public balls, teas was served halfway through the evening; gentlemen sat with the ladies with whom they had danced prior to the tea service

Temple – the site for two of the four Inns of Court (the Inner Temple and the Middle Temple); was once occupied by the Knights Templar

Temple Bar – a gate that marked the formal entrance to the City of London; the sovereign had to request permission of the Lord Mayor to enter the city; north of the Temple at the eastern end of the Strand

tenants – prosperous farmers who rent land; not necessarily the poor

tenner – slang for a ten-pound note

Test Act – legislation that forbid Catholics from holding public office, including Parliament; was repealed in 1828

Thirty-nine Articles – the basis of the Church of England; a clergyman “read himself in” to a new parish congregation by reading the articles aloud to the congregation from the pulpit

three-decker novel – a common occurrence in novels of the 18th and 19th Centuries; the novel is divided into three volumes within one book; the volumes were published as separates (only Austen’s Northanger Abbey and Persuasion are two volumes; all other Austen works were 3 volumes)

ticket-of-leave – an early release from jail (similar to parole)

ticket porter – a member of the official group licensed to carry goods, parcels, etc.; a ticket porter carried a badge which identified him as a member of this occupation; like a guild member

ticket to a public ball – anyone who could afford a ticket to a public ball or assembly was admitted; a season of tickets would cost between one pound and ten guineas (depending on the country or in London)

tidewaiter – a customs official for incoming boats/ships

tights – thin, skintight pants worn by gentlemen in the early part of the century; were so tight that men resorted to carrying a purse for their money

tilbury – the cloth covering part of a wagon

Times – the most important newspaper of the day; one could find the entire text of parliamentary debates in the Times

tinderbox – used to start a fire before matches became common; one struck the flint from the box against a piece of metal in hopes that a spark would light the rags inside the box; candles, etc., were lit from the tinderbox

tippet – a fur scarf that hung about the neck and down either side of the chest; many times the tippet was a dead animal (think Fox furs, etc.)

tithes – the amount paid in kind to the local parish clergyman; equal to 1/10 of the farmer’s or tradesman’s annual produce

top – the place in a ballroom or assembly from which the orchestra played; the “top” couple in a line of dance was the one closest to the orchestra; to be at the top of the line was a place of honor, usually afforded to the highest ranking aristocrat in the room

top boots – high boots used for riding

Tory – the conservative party in English politics

training college – a college that trained teachers for the national schools

Transatlantic Trade Triangle – goods were shipped from British ports to the west coast of Africa, where they were exchanged for slaves; the slaves were taken by The Middle Passage to  the Americas; slaves were traded for agricultural goods (cotton and sugar) and returned to England

transportation – sending English criminals overseas as punishment; until 1776, the American colonies were the destination; afterwards, the criminal was sent to Australia

traveling post – a hired driver, chaise, and horses for a journey

treacle – a sweet medicine (similar to molasses)

truck system – paying one’s employees in goods, food, etc., rather than money

tucker – a piece of lace to cover a woman’s chest in lady’s garments

turbans – a popular ladies’ fashion in the early part of the century; an imitation of a Middle Eastern headdress

turnkey – a jailer

turnpike – a toll road; the average toll was 2-3 pence per mile

twelfth cakes – cakes made for Twelfth Night; those who found the coin or bean inside became the “king” or “queen” of the celebration

Twelfth Night – January 5; the night before the 12th day after Christmas; when Christmastide officially ended; January 6 is the Epiphany

two-dance rule – a couple was expected not to dance more than twice; dancing more often with a partner was a symbol of serious matrimonial interest

two-penny post – London’s local mail delivery system, which was run as a separate entity from the national mail system; similar local mail delivery systems rose up within other large metropolitan areas

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Wimborne Minster’s Grandeur

Posted on December 14, 2012 by Regina Jeffers

Known locally as the Minster, Wimborne Minster is the parish church of  Wimborne, Dorset, England. The Minster has existed for over 1300 years and is recognised for its unusual chained library (one of only four surviving chained libraries in the world). The Minster, a former monastery and Benedictine nunnery, is the resting place of King Ethelred of Wessex. 

Dedicated to Sain Cuthburga, who founded a Benedictine abbey of nuns at the present day minster in circa A.D. 705. A monastery for men was built around this time, adjacent to the abbey. In 871, Alfred the Great buried his brother King Ethelred in the Minster.

The women’s monastery was destroyed by the Danes  in 1013 during one of their incursions into Wessex  and never rebuilt, though the main abbey building survived. In 1043, Edward the Confessor founded a college of secular (non-monastic) canons, consisting of a dean, four prebends, four vicars, four deacons, and five singers at the minster. The minster was remodelled and rebuilt by the Normans between 1120 and 1180, to support that institution.

In 1318, Edward II issued a document that made the minster a Royal Peculiar, which exempted it from all diocesan jurisdiction. The choir used to wear scarlet robes, a legacy of this ‘Peculiar’. Similar robes of this type are worn in Westminster Abbey and St. George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle. In 1496, Lady Margaret Beaufort, granddaughter of John of Gaunt and mother of Henry VII, founded a small chapel in the minster. With the reign of Henry VIII, the remaining parts of the monastery were adopted into part of the minster to avoid being destroyed. However much of the wealth of the minster was confiscated by King Henry VIII.

The West Tower

The pulpit

Sixty six years later in 1562 a grant was obtained from Queen Elizabeth I  by which part of the property formerly belonging to the college, together with all ecclesiastical rights and prerogatives was returned to Wimborne and vested in twelve governors. The charter was surrendered to James I  and a new charter was obtained from Charles I at a cost of £1000 with the addition of an organist and singing men. During the English Civil War,  when Charles I was beheaded his coat of arms was painted out from the wall of the minster, but on the restoration of Charles II the arms were speedily replaced and have now been restored.

In 1846 the Royal Peculiar was abolished, and now all that remains of the old order is the control by 12 governors of some of the minster affairs. The church was renovated towards the end of the 19th century and its last addition, a vestry was added at the same time. Today the church is a place of visit and worship for the local community and visitors.

The old Treasury which housed the wealth of the minster has an important chained library. The library was founded in 1686 and is the second largest chained library  in the country and also one of the first public libraries. Some of the collections of the library include a manuscript written on lambskin in 1343, a book bound for the Court of  Henry VIII, an incunabulum printed in 1495 on the works of Saint Anselm,  and a Paraphrase of Erasmus printed in 1522 with a title page designed by Holbein.

Wimborne Minster is the home of an astronomical clock, one of a group of famous 14th to 16th century astronomical clocks to be found in the west of England.  It is currently maintained by notable Wimborne resident Bruce Jensen.

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Body Snatching and Resurrectionists

Posted on December 13, 2012 by Regina Jeffers

Body Snatching was the removal of bodies from graveyards, usually for the purpose of using the corpses as cadavers for the 19th Century medical schools. Those who practiced body snatching were referred to as resurrectionists or resurrection-men. As opposed to grave robbery, which involved robbing a tomb or crypt to steal artifacts or the corpse’s personal effects, body snatchers dealt in bodies for sale.


Before the Anatomy Act of 1832, the only legal way for medical schools to have bodies for anatomical purposes in the UK were those condemned to death and dissection by the courts. Those sentenced for harsher crimes were often condemned to dissection.

Such sentences did not provide enough subjects for the medical schools and private anatomical schools (which did not require a licence before 1832). While during the 18th century hundreds had been executed for trivial crimes, by the 19th century only about 55 people were being sentenced to capital punishment each year. However, with the expansion of the medical schools, as many as 500 cadavers were needed.

Graveyard watchtower, Edinburgh

 

 

 

 

Before electric power to supply refrigeration, bodies would decay rapidly and become unusable for study. Therefore, the medical profession turned to body snatching to supply the deficit of bodies fresh enough to be examined.

Stealing a corpse was only a misdemeanour  at common law, not a felony, and was therefore only punishable with fine and imprisonment, rather than transportation or execution. The trade was a sufficiently lucrative business to run the risk of detection, particularly as the authorities tended to ignore what they considered a necessary evil.

Body snatching became so prevalent that it was not unusual for relatives and friends of someone who had just died to watch over the body until burial, and then to keep watch over the grave afterburial, to stop it being violated. Iron coffins, too, were used frequently, or the graves were protected by a framework of iron bars called “mortsafes,” well-preserved examples of which may still be seen in Greyfriars  churchyard in Edinburgh. 

One method the body snatchers used was to dig at the head end of a recent burial, digging with a wooden spade (quieter than metal). When they reached the coffin (in London the graves were quite shallow), they broke open the coffin, put a rope around the corpse and dragged it out. They were often careful not to steal anything such as jewellery or clothes as this would cause them to be liable to a felony charge.

The Lancet  reported another method. A manhole-sized square of turf was removed 15 to 20 feet (5 to 6 m) away from the head of the grave, and a tunnel dug to intercept the coffin, which would be about 4 feet (1.2 m) down. The end of the coffin would be pulled off, and the corpse pulled up through the tunnel. The turf was then replaced, and any relatives watching the graves would not notice the small, remote disturbance. The article suggests that the number of empty coffins that have been discovered “proves beyond a doubt that at this time body snatching was frequent”.

During 1827 and 1828, some Edinburgh resurrectionists including Burke and Hare  changed their tactics from grave-robbing to murder, as they were paid more for very fresh corpses. Their activities, and those of the London Burkers who imitated them, resulted in the passage of the Anatomy Act of 1832. This allowed unclaimed bodies and those donated by relatives to be used for the study of anatomy, and required the licensing of anatomy teachers, which essentially ended the body snatching trade. The use of bodies for scientific research in the UK is now governed by the Human Tissue Authority. 

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Manners in Regency England – How To Behave Like an Aristocrat

Posted on December 12, 2012 by Regina Jeffers

Regency Era manners were based on the conduct of the upper crust of Renaissance Italy, as well as 17th Century France. The fashions and the codes of conduct were influenced by both, but the Regency Period carved out a specific style all its own. Social classes were more obvious during the Regency. It was important to know one’s place and to act accordingly. Social rank determined many everyday interactions.

Men of the period were taught how to be a “gentleman” from a very young age. Their tutors and formal schooling enforced such codes. A gentleman was expected to speak and act with confidence; to use correct English and to avoid vulgarity in speech; to be exceptionally dressed; to walk with confidence and proper posture; to dance well; to have a well-rounded education that included science, math, the arts, literature, etc.; to demonstrate proper manners; and to show of a lesser class consideration.

Women were expected to be meek, obedient, docile, fragile, and dependent on the men in their lives. A woman’s appearance was her crowning glory; therefore, women were expected to take care with their dress and hair. Women were taught to value beauty over education. Learning and intelligence was frowned upon.

Men of the period turned to courtesy books and guides on rules for behavior. Sir Thomas Holby translated an Italian courtesy book entitled Il Cortegiano from the early 1500s. It was very popular during the Regency. Women consulted conduct manuals such as Fordyce’s Sermons to Young Women and Gregory’s A Father’s Legacy to His Daughter.

Some of the stricter guidelines for behavior included proper ways to address others. For example, only close friends and family would use a person’s given name. It was permissible for a person of higher rank to use the given name of a lower class acquaintance, but not the reverse. The eldest daughter in a family was “Miss” + last name (as in Miss Bennet for Jane Bennet in “Pride and Prejudice”). Her sisters would be “Miss” + given name (as in Miss Elizabeth).

Only those of a higher rank could approach someone he did not know. People of a lower or equal rank had to wait for an introduction by a friend or a master of ceremonies. After an introduction, a person was considered an “acquaintance.” Shunning an acquaintance was considered rude and was a “direct cut.” If an acquaintance was in the same room in the company of an unknown person, one would simple acknowledge the acquaintance with a nod or an unobstructive wave or a bow. A handshake was only exchanged among close friends.

People entered a room by social rank. Members of the aristocracy entered by rank: Duke/Duchess; Marquess/Marchioness; Earl/Countess; Viscount/Viscountess; Baron/Baroness. The aristocracy were followed by the landed gentry. Family members entered according to their age and marital status. (Do you recall Lydia Bennet Wickham claiming precedence over her elder sister Jane. Although Lydia was the youngest Bennet sister, her marriage would place her above her sisters.)

 

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The Rame Head or Cornwall’s “Forgotten Corner”

Posted on December 11, 2012 by Regina Jeffers

Rame Head is a coastal headland, southwest of the village of Rame in southeast Cornwall, United Kingdom. The area plays a prominent role in my Regency romance, The First Wives’ Club, which recently received an honorable mention in SOLA’s Seventh Annual Dixie Kane Awards.

The site was used for a hill fort in the Iron Age. The headland has a prominent chapel, dedicated to St Michael, accessible by a steep footpath. The chapel was first licensed for Mass in 1397 and is probably on the site of a much earlier, Celtic, hermitage. It remains as an intact shell. Earl Ordulf, who was the owner of vast estates in the West Country and was the uncle of King Ethelred, gave Rame to Tavistock Abbey (which Ordulf had founded) in 981. 

The headland is prominent to sailors and fishermen leaving Plymouth through Plymouth Sound. It is often the last piece of land they see leaving England, and the first they see when returning home; Rame Head thus appears in the sea shanty “Spanish Ladies.”
Due to its exceptionally high and panoramic vantage point, there is a volunteer National Coastwatch Institution lookout on the top of the headland. 

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Regency Era Lexicon – Continues with the Letter “S”

Posted on December 10, 2012 by Regina Jeffers

s. – the abbreviation for shilling (a shilling is a English silver coin worth twelvepence; 20 shillings = one pound)

Sabbatarians – VERY strict observers of the Sabbath

sack – a dry white wine from Spain

St. Giles – a notorious London slum with a large Irish and Jewish population; a center for prostitution

St. James Palace – the official residence (until 1837 when Queen Victoria moved the royal residence to Buckingham Palace)

“Saint Jane” myth (not necessarily a Regency  term, but important to the era) – When Henry Austen wrote his biography of his sister Jane, he presented a “saint” to the world, which is in sharp contrast to the Jane Austen we meet in her letters.

saloon or salon – a large room, such as a drawing room, used for receiving and entertaining guests; this room often doubled as a picture gallery in a fine house

salver – a silver tray which held calling cards; either placed on a table in the hallway or delivered by the head servant to his master/mistress; also used by servants to passing around biscuits during social gatherings

sal volatile – smelling salt (made with ammonium carbonate)

sandals – used by ladies in the early part of the century; slipperlike shoes that fastened over the instep with a strap

sash – worn by little girls as a complement to the muslin frock

schoolroom – where children received their lessons in a wealthier home; large enough for dancing lessons and to accommodate games indoors; “in the schoolroom” meant a young lady had not made her “Come Out”

scout – a man servant at Oxford

Scottish reel – a folk dance with gliding steps and jumps; a quick-stepping dance

scullery – place where dishes were washed and stored

sealing wax or sealing wafer – a drop of wax (dropped wet over the fold of a letter and allowed to dry) or a sealing wafer (a thin disk of dried paste used to seal a document) was used to seal a letter (There were NO envelopes.); a signet ring or seal pressed into the wax secured the paper seal; usually made of beeswax; red wax was used only for business; other colors for social correspondence; black wax indicated mourning

seals – small ornament on a watch chain, including a seal to set the wax on a letter

sedan Chair – a rickshaw-like enclosed chair with two poles, carried by two men, one at the front of the poles, another at the back of the chair holding the rear poles

seedcake – a sweet cake usually made with caraway seeds

sell up – selling all of a person’s worldly goods to settle his debts

seminary – the most fashionable, educational, and expensive institution for young ladies; girls learned sewing (“work”), reading, writing, mathematics, French, and history, along with dancing, music (instrument and singing), and art (although these fine arts often cost extra)

senior wrangler – in Cambridge’s math honors exams, the top students were called “wranglers”; the highest ranked student was the “senior wrangler”

sennight – a contraction of “seven nights” = one week

sent down – expelled from a university

servants’ hall – a special room where the servants of a household ate and socialized

servants’ quarters – servants (both male and female) had their bedrooms in the manor house’s attic, basement, or a separate wing of the house (The lady’s maid often had a room near her mistress.)

set – the name given to a group of dancers in a dance, as well as the series of dances they perform

settee – an indoor chair on which two people could sit

settle – a wooden bench with a high back on which several people could sit; usually found in taverns and rustic homes; often faced the fireplace

settlement – the legal arrangement of property; marriage settlements involved ensuring that a woman would receive pin money, a jointure and portions for her future children;  strict settlements ensured that a landed estate remained entailed against the possibility of a male heir selling or mortgaging it; settlement under the Poor Law meant a person could not receive financial relief in a parish without being born in the parish, been apprenticed in the parish, or being married to a parish resident

Seven Deadly Sins – pride, greed, lust, anger, gluttony, envy, sloth (Unfortunately, these characteristics often defined members of the aristocracy.)

Seven Dials– an infamous criminal district in London; it was the seven streets that converged upon St. Giles (see above)

sexton – the man who rang the bells and dug the graves at a churchyard

shaking hands – was a sign of real friendship, not generally part of an introduction as it is in current times; occurred less frequently between members of the opposite sex; was considered improper

shawl – worn by women throughout the century

sheriff – in previous centuries the High Sheriff was the king’s representative in the shire (i.e., the Sheriff of Nottingham); by the 1800s, the “sheriff” was a country gentleman who entertained the assize justices when they made their judicial circuit; in some areas, the sheriff also carried out official county business

shift– a long kind of nightgown type of material which women wore as underwear, along with the corset (“drawers” did not become popular until the 1860s); “shift” replaced the word “smock”; eventually, “shift” was replaced by the word “chemise”

shilling number – a monthly installment of a serialized novel (very popular in the mid and later part of the century)

ship-of-the-line – a warship usually of 60+ guns; one that could take its place in the “line” of battle

shire – unit of regional government run by the earl and the sheriff (shire reeve) in the monarch’s name; the Normans substituted the word “county” for “shire”; “The shires” in foxhunting groups referred to the Midland shires, including Rutland, Northamptonshire, and Leicestershire

shivaree – a noisy mock serenade (made by banging pans and kettles) to a newly married couple (also referred to as belling, charivari, chivaree, callathump, and callithump in regional areas of the US and UK)

shorts – knee breeches

shove-halfpenny– a children’s game similar to shuffleboard, but played on a table and with coins

sideboard – dining room furniture that held extra dishes; later, it became a storage place for plate, silverware, etc.

Sir – the title by which baronets and knights are addressed

sitting room – used for morning activities (reading, letter writing, cards, painting, sewing, etc.); in smaller manor houses the husband would have his study at one end while the wife had her sitting room

sizar – scholarship students at Cambridge

skittles – similar to bowling (nine pens or skittles)

small clothes – knee breeches

smock frock – an outer garment worn by the agricultural working poor

snob – meant someone of no social standing, the opposite of a “nob”

snuffers – scissorlike instruments used to trim the wicks of tallow candles

Social Season – London’s fashionable high life; ran from February to June and September to pre-Christmas

solicitor – a lawyer who dealt in wills and estate issues; they could not appear in court; therefore, solicitors would hire a barrister to represent his client in court matters

Somerset House– housed various government offices, most notably the tax office (Board of Inland Revenue); located on the Strand in London

Southwark – the “Borough”; located across the Thames south of London

sovereign – a gold coin worth a pound (first came into circulation in 1817)

spatterdashes – long gaithers to protect the legs from water and mud

spencer – a short jacket worn by ladies of the day; for men, a spencer was an overcoat without tails

sponging house – a house run by a sheriff’s officer where debtors were housed while they repaid their debts

Sprezzatura – Though dating from the Renaissance, Castiglione’s sprezzatura remained in place during the Regency. Taught from childhood, “gracefulness” became a way of life. A member of the gentry should speak and act with modest confidence; maintain emotional control; use proper language; and be well educated in literature, the arts, history, and dancing.

squire – a term of courtesy for a member of the gentry whose family lved for generations in an area and who had tenants on his property; often served as the justice of the peace in the area

stagecoach – public transportation, generally for the lower classes; the Royal Mail coaches were quicker and more expensive than the regular stagecoaches (Note: Jane Austen’s house in Chawton was located beside a main stagecoach route; therefore, the noise of the carriages was commonplace for Austen in those days.)

stair rod – metal rods clamped along the base of a riser to hold the carpet in place

stall – metonymy at work; a position a prebendary held (i.e., Dr. Grant in Austen’s “Mansfield Park” succeeds to a stall in Westminster.)

stand up – to dance with someone

stanhope – a light carriage with no top; could have 2 or 4 wheels; named for the Honourable and Reverend Fitzroy Stanhope (1784-1864)

Statute of Wills – passed by Henry VIII in 1540, the statute allowed a person to leave his property to anyone he wanted, provided he had stated his desires in a will; unfortunately, Parliament had not abolished the “Statute of Uses” from 1536, which supported the concept of primogeniture, so primogeniture remained the preferred inheritance method

stay – one of the two halves of a corset

staylace – one of the laces used to tighten a corset

steeplechase – a horseback ride or race across country; originally the gentlemen raced toward a distant steeple; therefore, it was a straight course, but that did not mean the race lacked obstacles

steward – managed the estate for the owner so that the owner did not have to deal directly with tenant farmers; the steward would oversee the estate’s accounts, settle tenant squabbles, purchase seed and animals, etc.

stile – a set of three or four wooden steps built to help people over a wall or fence constructed in a field to keep animals enclosed

stillroom – where preserves and wine were kept in a house; also where coffee and tea was made

stock – a tight, stiff collar worn by men, especially soldiers; it was also the black shirtfront over which the white bit of collar was fastened for clerical dress

stone – a measurement of weight = 14 pounds

strand – shore of a river or ocean

stud – horses raised for breeding or racing

stuff – name for different kinds of fabrics, but generally applied to those commonly made of wool

sugarloaf– the hard, crusty form in which sugar was available; usually shaped like a cone

sugarplum – a round piece of flavored candy made chiefly of sugar

surgeon – a man who tended to external injuries (broken bones, wounds, etc.) “Physicians” never bloodied their hands. Physicians were addressed as “doctor,” whereas surgeons were referred to as “mister.”

surtout – a man’s overcoat, very much like a frock coat

swallowtail coat – a man’s coat, which had long tails that tapered down the gentleman’s back

sweetbread – the thymus gland or pancreas of a young animal, especially a calf or lamb, used for food

sweetmeat – a candy, such as a candied fruit

swing glass – a mirror similar to a cheval glass

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King George III’s Children – Part 2

Posted on December 7, 2012 by Regina Jeffers

Duke of York

Before succumbing to his illness, George III had a sometime tempestuous relationship with members of his family.

The king’s second son, Prince Frederick, Duke of York, found himself in a scandal, along with his mistress, Mary Ann Clarke. They were both accused of profiting from the sale of army promotions during the Napoleonic campaign. The Duke was found not guilty of corrupt practices, but he was relieved of his duties as Commander-in-Chief of the Army. As the king’s favorite, this was a great blow to the Royal family. Earlier in his career, Frederick had fought a duel in defense of his brother, the Crown Prince. One of the queen’s ladies had insulted both Frederick and Prince George. Frederick gave the woman a good set down. Then the lady’s son challenged Frederick to a duel. His opponent came within an inch of placing his bullet in the prince’s head.

Ernest, Duke of Cumberland

Ernest, Duke of Cumberland, was once brought under suspicion of murder. He was the least likeable of the king’s sons. Ernest was said to be vain and easily rowed to anger. He had an war injury, which caused his left eye to have a sunken look. Ernest often spread malicious gossip about his family members. Some felt that Ernest was “too fond” of his sister Sophia. Many thought the prince to be bisexual or homosexual. When the duke’s valet (Joseph Sellis) was found in the ducal apartments with his throat slit, people believed the two had had a homosexual relationship, and that the valet was blackmailing Ernest. Sellis’s death was ruled a suicide, but the finding was questioned. For the wound to be self-inflicted, Sellis would have had to be right handed. Ironically, the man was left-handed.

Frederick, Duke of York

King George preferred Frederick to his heir, Prince George. The king found his eldest son too effeminate. By the Golden Jubilee, the king was 72 years old, and the Crown Prince was 50. By this time, the two very much despised each other…more than likely wishing the other would “meet his Maker.”

As George III prepared for his Golden Jubilee, his daughter, the Princess Amelia (age 27) lay dying within the palace. Amelia was George III’s youngest daughter. The girl had given her father a keepsake by which to remember her. It was a ring containing one of her jewels and a lock of her hair. The inscription read: “Remember Me.” Amelia had fallen in love with Charles Fitzroy, one of the king’s equerries, but had not been allowed to marry him. Ironically, she left everything to Fitzroy in her will.

Princess Amelia

By the Golden Jubilee, only Princess Charlotte had married. The king’s other daughters were approaching middle aged (for that time period). They were not “attractive” women, and they found few prospects.

Princess Charlotte

The family spent a great deal of time trying to hide from the king the fact that Princess Sophia had borne an illegitimate child. Ironically, the child’s father was an ugly, dwarf, some 33 years older than Sophia.

Princess Sophia

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The Children of King George – Part I

Posted on December 6, 2012 by Regina Jeffers

George III’s and Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz’s many children and grandchildren included:

(1) George Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales (and later King George IV) was the heir apparent (1762-1830). George IV married Caroline of Brunswick.  Princess Charlotte Augusta of Wales was their only child (1796-1817).

(2) Frederick Augustus, Duke of York (1763-1827), who married Fredericka of Prussia had no legitimate children.

(3)William Henry, Duke of Clarence (and later King William IV) (1765-1837) married Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen. Their children included Princess Charlotte Augusta Louisa, who was born in 1819 but who did not survive, and Princess Elizabeth Georgina Adelaide, who suffered a similar fate.

(4) Charlotte Augusta Matilda, Princess Royal (1766-1828) married Frederick I of Wurtemburg. They had no children.

(5) Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent (1767-1820) married Victoria Mary of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfield. These were the lucky parents of the future queen, Alexandrina Victoria of Kent. QUEEN VICTORIA (1818-1901) married Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.

(6) Princess Augusta Sophia (1768-1840) did not marry.

(7) Princess Elizabeth (1770-1840) married Frederick of Hesse-Homberg, but they had no children.

(8) Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland (and later King Ernest of Hanover) (1771-1851) married Fredericka of Mecklenberg-Strelitz. King George V of Hanover was their son.

(9) Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex (173-1843) first married Lady Augusta Murray, by whom he sired Augustus Frederick d’Este (1794-1848) and  Augusta Emma d’Este (1801-1866). Later, he married Lady Cecilia Letitia Buggin. Lady Cecilia presented Augustus with no children.

(10)Adolphus Frederick, Duke of Cambridge (1774-1850) married Augusta of Hesse-Cassel. Their children included George, Duke of Cambridge (1819-1904), Princess Augusta of Cambridge (1833-1927), and Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge (1837-1897).

(11) Mary (1776-1857) married William Frederick, Duke of Gloucester of Edinburgh. They had no children.

(12) Princess Sophia  (1777-1848) never married.

(13)Prince Octavius  (1779-1786) died in infancy.

(14) Prince Alfred  (1780-82) died in infancy.

(15) Princess Amelia  (1783-1810) died in infancy.

Tomorrow, we will take a closer look at the intrigues surrounding the Royal family and the “madness” of King George III.

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Jane Austen and The British Royal Navy

Posted on December 5, 2012 by Regina Jeffers

In referring to the cult-like following of those who extolled all things involving Admiral Horatio Nelson, Jane Austen once wrote, “I am sick of Lives of Nelson.” Yet, the author always appreciated the lives of men in the Royal Navy. Two of her brothers served thusly. The British Navy at the time of the Napoleonic War was divided into “ships of the line,” those carrying between 60 and 100 guns, and “cruisers,” which were frigates, sloops, and brigs with fewer guns. In 1810, British naval strength was estimated to be 150+ ships of the line and near 400 cruisers. Documents on the naval history sites say that the Navy employed 800+captains, 600+ commanders, and nearly 3300 lieutenants.

During the Napoleonic Wars, the size of the British fleet was greater than all the other sea-faring nations put together.

The British Isles remained safe behind the “Wooden Walls” of the Royal Navy, and Britain was able to continue its world trade and empire building. They controlled English Channel and trading routes with size of their fleet, but Britain also actively sent its vessels out to attack enemy warships. With its strength in numbers and its developing naval industry, Britain could risk losing a ship or two to protect the British people.

In 1797, 1801, and 1807, the British navy sailed to destroy the neutral or French-allied vessels of Holland and Denmark. At Camperdown in 1797, Admiral Duncan pitted his 16 ships against 16 Dutch warships under Admiral de Winter and destroyed the enemy fleet – capturing seven Dutchmen and allowing the rest to flee.

In April 1801, the Admirality sent an expedition against Denmark to break up a northern European agreement, the Armed Neutrality of the North, that threatened British trade and shipbuilding materiel – wood, rope, grain and tar – in the Baltic Sea.

The naval Battle of Copenhagen was a British victory that saw 12 of 18 Danish vessels captured and ended the threat to its trade. In 1807, Britain again moved against Denmark when it became known there was a French move to grab the Danish fleet. Admiral Gambier took 20 ships of the line and an infantry force of some 20,000 men – including Arthur Wellesley (yes, that is the Duke of Wellington) – to prevent the vessels falling into French hands. A two-week siege began and a Danish military move to break the blockade was ended by Wellesley’s infantry. The bombardment of the capital by the Royal Navy forced neutral Denmark to hand over its 18 ships to London.

Sir Charles Austen

Jane Austen’s brothers entered the navy at the age of 12 and first went to sea at age 15. Naval life was a hard one, and many believed it necessary “to toughen up the boys.” Unlike in the army, naval commissions could not be bought. It was necessary to succeed in a naval career to have the patronage of an influential personage. If one recalls Admiral Crawford in Mansfield Park, this makes more sense. A man earned his future in prize money. Do we not recall Captains Wentworth, Benwick, and Harville in Persuasion? The captain would receive one-fourth of the value of the captured ship. His officers would receive graduated proportions, and ordinary seamen divided the final quarter among themselves. In Persuasion, Wentworth has earned 20,000 pounds in his eight years of service. Men learned to look forward to another war so they might continue their winning ways.

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